New Catalyst For Hydrogen Production From Water Sea.

A new type of catalyst that can produce hydrogen from sea water has been developed by researchers in America. Metal-oxo complex catalyst shows catalytic activity and stability are very high, and production cost is relatively cheap, the researchers said.

Hydrogen attracted the attention of researchers due to be made as environmentally friendly fuels. Basically, the hydrogen produced by the reaction between water vapor with methane gas is by using a nickel catalyst, the lack of this method is to produce a gaseous byproduct CO2 yag can cause the greenhouse effect.

Jeffrey Long and colleagues from the University of California, Berkeley, USA, made of molybdenum-oxo complexes that act as elektrokatalis, so that it can reduce the energy needed to make hydrogen from water using mercury electrodes. As there are a lot of metal in the nature of molybdenum as compared with the mercury which for the manufacture of large-scale production required a fairly high cost.

Long explained that the stability of the catalyst due to metal ligand bonding molybdenum at five positions (pentadentat) so that such ties make complexity become strong. Complex molecule is very strong and stable in water environment for long periods of time so we do not see any degradation of catalyst activity after three days of its use, said Long.

In khsus, the catalyst that made Long also stable against impuritas contained in sea water, meaning that sea water can be directly used as production materials without prior treatment. The research team uses seawater from California and produce the same results as those using pure water at neutral pH. In addition, any addition of electrolyte is not necessary if the kit uses sea water, it may reduce production costs and eliminate the use of organic acid as solvent which has a side effect of catalyst performance is medegradasi.

Long and his team hope to be able to develop this system so that future katali is possible can be used with solar panels to generate hydrogen gas. The research team is now modifying the catalyst to reduce the potential where electrochemical reaction occurs and makes the system much better.

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Extracted metal zwitterionic salt.

British scientists have developed a zwitterionic ligand salicyclaldoxime that can allow an industrial ion - metal ions from other substances important for selectively updated. Some molecules that bind both ions - metal salt ions independently, where it should be improved efficiency of the extraction process. Approximately 25 percent of copper in the world is updated by using phenolic oxime extractant conventional, which only binds copper cations, not the spouse of the anion.

When several extractant to transfer copper from an aqueous solution into the organic phase, there is a build up of acid in the aqueous phase, which then must be neutralized, completed the extraction process. This technology could eventually find applications in the improvement of commercial varieties of base metal.

Tasker dialkylaminomethyl and his colleagues made a substitute salicyclaldoximes capable of binding a metal cation and the accompanying anions in a separate location from the zwitterionic form of the extractant with a neutral charge assemblies. Tasker explained that 'the new reagent extracts the metal salt, which is contrary to conventional oxime reagent that transports metal cations' and as a result there is no net exchange of cations or anions, which makes them well adapted to overcome the waste stream. As a consequence of the structure formed by the bus trans-salicyclaldoximato complex of Cu (II) complex is tritopic which means that the divalent metal can be moved with their two mono-anions simultaneously, leading to further increases in efficiency.

Trans structure formed by bis-salicyclaldoximato complex of Cu (II) has three bonding sites, the core principle of the science of supramolecular chemistry has been used to solve a very important industrial problems, one of the biggest challenges associated with commercial exploitation of the new reagent is getting high selection of both cation and anion delivery. This work has shown that cooperative binding of the cation and anion will resolve this matter.

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enzyme catalysts.

The way the molecule binds the enzyme catalysts to accelerate their reaction was not as simple as what you think, says chemist from England and Spain. Some enzymes do not need to tie in a way that will best stabilize the reaction transition state, but particularly in a way that minimizes the overall energy barrier for the reaction. Applying this idea to design a new molecular catalysts can help to improve their performance.

People - people often think the reaction with the enzyme catalytic transition state stabilization, said Jonathan Goodman of the University of Cambridge. Transition state can be thought of as the top "hill" that must be energetic climb to the reaction that followed - if the energy is lowered, then the reaction will move faster.

However, what Goodman - together - together with Luis Simón of the University of Salamanca - find when they dig up the protein databank (PDB) to find the way to acquire these enzymes, is that the hydrogen bonding groups at the enzyme active site is not structured to provide stabilization maximum in the transition state.

The addition reaction-type enzyme oxyanion hole in mengakatalisasi carbonyl group (C = O). Goodman explained that they expect to see the location of the active enzyme composed with hydrogen bonding donor at the carbonyl samaseperti extent, because it is known to provide good stabilization of the transition state.

Bond planar (left) of carbonyl compounds to stabilize the transition state is good, but plays its bonds (right) is very good unuk reduce the energy barrier. However, what they find by looking at the structure of the enzyme is that the hydrogen bond donors tend to play out of the field of carbonyl.

This pair found that the bond on the configuration of the molecule also lowered initial reactant - the foundation reaction - and with more than a lowered transition state. This means that the overall energy barrier - the size of the hill of the molecules that must pass - real big sanagt

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The separation.

The separation of the mixture with light.
Scientists in England have been using light to separate the mixed-complex chemical mixtures. This method can be used to merecovery products and high value-nanoparticle nanoparticles of mixed-catalytic reaction mixture, they claim. Julian Eastoe, at the University of Bristol, and colleagues added surfactant-sensitive surface to the mikroemulsi. When they illuminate the mixture with UV light, causing surfactant oil phase and water phase in the emulsion separated.

Previously, researchers rely on heat, pH changes, or adding salt to separate the phases in mikroemulsi. This new method does not alter the chemical composition mikroemulsi or use as much energy with the separation that uses heat.

"We were quite impressed with the opportunities offered by the activated particles of light, colloids, and the interphase-interphase. This will be more enriching field of chemical engineering" Eastoe said. More importantly, added Eastoe, these divisions are reversible. After a separated dispersed sample, the sample can again didispersi and then separated again.

When the UV rays to disinarkan emulsion, surfactant causing oil and water phases separated.

"What is interesting about this research is that through the addition of a surfactant fotoresponsif, they have been transformed into a mikroemulsi conventional fotoresponsif system," said Ted Lee, an expert in the field of responsive surfactant system at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States.

This new method can be used in the release and distribution system-light activated for farmaseutik and agrochemical, Eastoe said. But he said the next challenge is how to make a surfactant-surfactant fotoresponsif a cheap, safe and environmentally friendly.

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catalysts Unique.

Homogeneous catalysts Unique, Divided Self After reaction.

What is a homogeneous catalyst? When we use the acid esterification catalysis for the solution of this course will mix perfectly with the reactant and product compounds. tSecara general, homogeneous catalysts are compounds that have the same phase as the reactants of chemical reactions take place.

Actually a lot of use of homogeneous catalysts in industry, ranging from the conventional, cheap sort of acid or base catalyst to organometalik compounds are expensive. Selectivity of reaction and reaction conditions are mild primary consideration homogeneous catalyst selection.

The main problem is often encountered in industrial and chemical synthesis using a homogeneous catalyst is the difficulty of doing the separation of catalyst from the product. The method used is the plural distillation or modify it kepolaran and material and energy-consuming large enough.

The dream of scientists and industrialists catalyst is a homogeneous catalyst that meets the economic requirements and easily separated after the reaction so that it can be used again. In August 2003, scientists from Brookhaven National Laboratory, R. Morris and Vladimir Dioumaev show such a homogeneous catalyst that can be settled after the reaction is complete hidrosililasi ketone compounds took place. Cation complex tungsten compounds that have weak bonds to the anion coordination is a problem-solving in these reactions.

The process is simple logic that is, before the reaction, the catalyst and the reactants dissolve completely perfect because it has the same kepolaran. However, as the process went, it was the product has a different kepolaran and the result is the separation of catalyst from the product itself. Another thing to note is the formation of two phases of the product and the catalyst material to form a kind of oil.

Indeed this technology can not generalized because of the reaction is the reaction of ketones hidrosililasi specific and does not use any solvent on the reaction. But this is really new and exciting discovery because it opens the opportunity to do further research, particularly the field of homogeneous catalysts.

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Dioxins unravel.

Using titanium and Ultraviolet, New Technology Dioxins unravel.
Discussion about dioxin reminiscent of hazardous substances contained in materials distributed by the thresher that United States troops in the jungles during the second world war. Later, this substance is blamed as the cause of the number of babies born with disabilities.

Dioxins are highly toxic substance. This substance is a cause of cancer and weakened liver function, and reduce one's immune system. Just one gram of it, dioxins can be said killing or injuring 10 thousand people.

Dioxins were also produced from the waste combustion process is not perfect, and how to handle this becomes a big problem. But now, a new technology has been developed to solve this difficult dioxins, namely by memaparinya with light and turn it into something harmless.

Newly developed tool is a tool to eliminate dioxins which uses a substance called titanium dioxide. Titanium oxide is a compound that is widely used in the manufacture of paint. When subjected to light, particularly ultraviolet light, then these compounds will react with oxygen in the air, and can solve organic materials. The new tools take advantage of these properties Titanium Oxide. The tool is mounted on the exhaust-gas pipeline facility or incinerator Incinerator. When the garbage was burned, the dioxins in the gas through the pipeline would be decomposed into carbon dioxide and water, with the titanium oxide in the device with ultra-violet rays.

By using silica gel (moisture absorbent material), scientists have succeeded in using titanium dioxide to extract the dioxins. Silica gel tersbut - a 3 mm diameter and its surface is coated by titanium oxide - used in such equipment. Silica gel surface has many holes, thus increasing surface area, and it will continue to attract dioxin with a large absorption.

Dioxins are absorbed into the silica gel is then broken down by titanium oxide is subjected to ultraviolet light. It is beneficial, transparent silica gel so that light can penetrate and cause chemical reactions in the whole place. Therefore, it can solve the dioxin with high reliability of more than 99 percent.

Newly developed equipment is very easy to be paired at the incinerator facility / Incinerator is already there. And this new technology is also environmentally friendly. In the past, describing how dioxin is by burning at extremely high temperatures - around 1000 degrees Fahrenheit - but with this new technology no longer need that much energy.

This tool only needs to expose the titanium dioxide ultraviolet light, so operating costs can almost be said very low. Tool, is now being produced in Japan. A commercial waste disposal company is scheduled to start using it before the end of this year

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the secrets of the catalyst.

Microscope reveal the secrets of the catalyst.

A promising technique to observe the catalyst work can provide new knowledge about how the catalyst, this catalyst works, the scientists reported in the Netherlands.

This research team used X-ray microscope to examine the Fischer-Tropsch reaction in the catalytic reaction in a room specially made, and they also said this technology should be able to give scientists a greater understanding of the catalytic activity, allowing the design of catalysts, catalyst better.

Solid catalysts are widely used in chemical industry, and accelerate the production of many important compounds. These catalysts are usually composed of metal nano-meter size or particles of metal oxide, which is attached to a solid support with high surface area.

However, the catalyst, catalyst and structural changes of complex chemical reactions during the - so observe directly the reaction catalyst can provide useful clues to improve efficiency. But do this at the temperatures and pressures commonly used in the industry so far proved quite difficult.

Now, a team led by Frank de Groot, and Bert Weckhuysen at the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands, in collaboration with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S., has achieved this by using a small reaction space. This study is the first study to examine the heterogeneous catalysts at work in nano-scale, the team said.

Contour maps showing the composition of the catalyst (left) and the areas where most of the hydrocarbons produced (right)

In "nanoreaktor" De Groot, a reaction occurs between the two windows are sketched with a thickness of only 10nm. This design allows the X-rays through the reaction and on the detector, resulting in snap ongoing reaction. Some X-rays are absorbed by the catalyst, reactants and products - an absolute energy is absorbed shows their chemical compositions. The team is able to investigate the surfaces of the catalyst to a resolution of about 40 nm.

"This gives us an opportunity to examine the chemical changes that occur in a catalyst while reacting, said de Groot Chemistry World, which shows that the resolution is high enough to consider each of the catalyst particle." This means that can provide much useful information to us in the nano-scale. "

One of the studied reactions of this team is Fischer-Tropsch process - in which a solid catalyst of particles of iron oxide embedded in silica is used to convert carbon monoxide and hydrogen into liquid hydrocarbons that can be used as fuel.

Tim de Groot and Weckhuysen replicate these reactions in nano-reactors and found that they were during the reaction, iron oxide having a transformation. Early iron oxide (Fe2O3) is converted to another oxide (Fe3O4), before the iron silicate (Fe2SiO4) and metallic iron begins to form. Finally, iron carbide (FexCy) began to appear. Correlate with the catalyst composition in different areas with organic products are formed, this team showed that carbon accumulates in iron-rich area, with hydrocarbon products apart from the metal to the silicon support.

"These findings show great potential for heterogeneous catalysts, catalyst for the in situ dicitra," explained Alexis Bell at the University of California, Berkeley, United States. "I imagine that this process is not limited to observation of the catalyst particles, but can also be used in a variety of other applications, such as the detection levels of particulates from the air is responsible for the formation of acid rain."

Other uses include the monitoring of the proposed structural changes in materials or research of hydrogen storage distribution of medical nanoparticles in cells. It says the development team in the field of optics and imaging methods will improve the resolution of this technique.

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Transformation.

Transformation of CO2 into methanol with organokatalis.

In the journal Angewandte Chemical, researchers from IBN (Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology) in Singapore reported that by using organokatalis, they can activate the process of CO2 into methanol safe very useful for industry and fuel cells. Organokatalis are catalysts that use non-metallic element found in organic compounds such as NHC (N-heterocyclic carbenes), for example IMF (1.3-bis-(2,4,6 trimethylphenyl) imidazolylidene is organokatalis form a stable and safe in storage.

These compounds do not have elements of toxic heavy metals and can be produced easily and cheaply. Scientists are reacting CO2 using NHC. When compared with inorganic catalysts, a toxic and unstable, NHC is very stable and even in open space that contact with oxygen. With these advantages NHC can react with CO2 in a dry room conditions.

Scientists at IBN also shows that only a small part of the NHC is needed to induce CO 2. One senior researcher IBN, Siti Nurhana Riduan, saying that their efforts can contribute to the reduction of CO2 in the environment and transform it into methanol, which can be useful for the industry and a source of fuel.

In this reaction, hydrosiline which is a combination of silica and hydrogen is added to the NHC teraktifasi by CO2 and the product of this reaction is methanol by hydrolysis process. Yugen Zhang (one of the researchers IBN) said that hydrosiline provide a source of hydrogen bonded to the reduction of CO2 in the process. Carbon dioxide is reduced efficiently by NHC that methanol can be easily obtained from this reaction.

Their previous research on the NHC has also concluded that the broad application of NHC can also be used as a powerful antioxidant that can prevent degenerative diseases and also mengkatalisa sugar into alternative energy sources. Currently, they have been applied to the production of methanol as the raw material from which the gas is very abundant on this earth .

Previous studies aimed at reducing the amount of CO2 into valuable products such as methanol also been carried out but in the study requires a high energy, slow reaction, and an unstable catalyst of transition metals.

IBN Executive Director Jackie Y. Ying, Ph.D., says that in the study, IBN has produced an innovative method of using raw materials that can reduce air pollution from CO2. This also can reduce the effects of global warming so that a solution for alternative energy in the middle of the energy crisis and the current environment.

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Nitrogen oxides.

Nitrous monoxide, N2O. Monovalent oxides of nitrogen. Pyrolysis of ammonium nitrate will produce this oxide by the reaction:

NH4NO3 → N2O + 2 H2O (heating at 250 ° C).

Although oxidation is only a formality, it is interesting and symbolic of how the nitrogen oxidation to form NH4NO3 changes in monovalent nitrogen oxides (+1 is the average of -3 and +5 oxidation state N in NH4 + and NO3-). Nno bond distance in N2O is 112 pm (NN) and 118 pm (NO), respectively related to the bond order of 2.5 and 1.5. N2O (16e) isoelectronic with CO2 (16 e). These compounds are widely used for analgesic.

Nitrogen oxide, NO. Divalent oxides of nitrogen. Obtained by reduction of nitrite via the following reaction:

KNO2 + KI + H2SO4 → NO + K2SO4 + H2O + ½ I2

Because an odd number of valence electrons (11 e), NO is paramagnetic. NO distance is 115 pm and has a double bond character. Electrons do not pair in the π * orbital antiikatan easily removed, and NO to NO + (nitrosonium) is isoelectronic with CO.

Because the electron removed from the orbital antiikatan, NO bond becomes stronger. NOBF4 and NOHSO4 compounds containing these cations and is used as oxidizing 1 electron.

Although monomeric NO as a gas is paramagnetic, dimerisasi the solid phase will produce diamagnetisme. NO is a transition metal ligand complex and unique form complexes such as [Fe (CO2) (NO) 2], with NO is a neutral ligand with 3 electrons. Although MnO straight bonds in this type of complex, MnO bond angle turn to 120 ° - 140 ° in [Co (NH3) 5 (NO)] Br2, with NO-4 is the ligand electrons. Recently become clear that NO has a variety of biological control functions, such as blood pressure reduction actions, and is the most important species, after Ca2 + ions, in signal transduction.

Nitrous trioxide, N2O3. Oxidation of nitrogen in this compound is +3, this compound is unstable and will be decomposed into NO and NO2 at room temperature. This compound is produced when the quantity of NO and NO2 equivalent dikondensasikan at low temperatures. Padatannya light blue and dark blue will bewarna when in the liquid, but the color will fade at higher temperatures.

Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, nitrogen compounds with the +4 oxidation berbilangan nitrogen. NO2 is a compound with an odd number of electrons with unpaired electrons, and reddish-brown. These compounds are in equilibrium with the dimer Nitrous tetraoksida, N2O4, which is not bewarna. The proportion of NO2 is 0.01% at -11 ° C and increased gradually to 15.9% at the boiling point (21.2 ° C), to 100% at 140 ° C.

N2O4 can be produced by pyrolysis of lead nitrate

2 Pb (NO3) 2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2 at 400 oC

When NO2 dissolved in water and nitric acid produced nitrite:

2 NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2

With one-electron oxidation, NO2 + (nitroil) is formed and the bond angles change from 134o in neutral NO2 to 180o. On the other hand, with one-electron reduction, NO2-formed ions (nitrito) with a bond angle 115o.

Nitrous pentoksida, N2O5, obtained when the concentrated nitric acid is slowly dehydrated with phosphorus pentoksida at low temperatures. This compound sublimes at a temperature of 32.4o C. Karenadengan dissolving it in water to produce nitric acid, also known as Nitrous pentoksida anhydrous nitric acid.

N2O5 + H2O → 2 HNO3

Although in the solid state is pentoksida Nitrous NO2NO3 ion pairs with alternate sites are occupied by ions ions straight NO2 + and NO3-planar ions, on the circumstances of this molecular gas is molecular.

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Nitrogen.

History
(Latin: nitrum, Greece: nitron, natural soda, forming) Nitrogen was discovered by chemist and physicist Daniel Rutherford in 1772. He separates the oxygen and carbon dioxide from the air and shows the remaining gas does not support combustion or living organisms. At the same time there are some scientists who conduct research lainny of nitrogen. They are Scheele, Cavendish, Priestley, and others. They called this gas air without oxygen.

Source
Nitrogen gas (N2) contained as many as 78.1% in the air. In comparison, the atmosphere of Mars contains only 2.6% nitrogen. From the earth's atmosphere, nitrogen gas can be produced through the process of liquidation (Liquefaction) and fractional distillation. Nitrogen is found in living things as part of biological compounds.

Element
French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier named nitrogen azote, meaning without life. However, nitrogen compounds found in food, fertilizers, poisons and explosives. As nitrogen gas bewarna no, no smell and is considered an inert element (elements that do not react). As a liquid, it is also not bewarna and scented and have the same ketampakan with water. Nitrogen gas can be prepared by heating a solution of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) in water.

Nitrogen compounds
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and potassium nitrate (KNO3) is formed by the decomposition of organic material with metal compounds such. In the dry conditions in beberapat place, saltpeters (salt) is found in sufficient quantities and used as fertilizer. Inorganic compounds other nitrogen is nitric acid (HNO3), ammonia (NH3) and oxides (NO, NO2, N2O4, N2O), cyanide (CN-), etc.. Nitrogen cycle is one of the important processes in nature for living organisms. Although nitrogen gas did not react, bacteria in the soil can improve the nitrogen into a useful form (as fertilizer) for plants. In other words, nature has provided a method to produce nitrogen for plant growth. Animals then eat these plants where nitrogen had been contained in their system as a protein. Cycle is complete when the bacteria, other bacteria convert the waste nitrogen compounds into nitrogen gas. As the main component of proteins, nitrogen is an essential ingredient for life.

Ammonia
Ammonia (NH3) is a commercial compound of nitrogen is most important. He produced using the Haber process. Natural gas (methane, CH4) reacts with steam to produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (H2) in a two-step process. Hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas and then reacted in the Haber process to produce ammonia. Gas is not bewarna stinging smell can be easily liquidated. Even the liquid form of this compound is used as nitrogen fertilizer. Ammonia is also used to produce urea (NH2CONH2), which is also used as fertilizer in the plastics industry, and in the farming industry as a livestock food supplement. Ammonia is often the first compound to a lot of nitrogen compounds.

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Enhance catalytic activity.

Reduction of oxygen on the catalyst reactivity can increase the production of hydrogen from methane oxidation, Chinese scientists claim.

Partial oxidation of methane to produce syngas (a combination CO/H2) and is an attractive alternative to fossil fuels. However, this process appears simultaneously with the total methane oxidation does not produce H2 directly and also release heat to form hot-spots in the catalyst is not active or destroy them, obviously Guanzhong Lu in East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China .

Lu and his colleagues found that the reactivity of atoms - atoms of oxygen on the catalyst to determine whether total or partial oxidation are going. Additions ion - europium ions into the catalyst structure to make a strong bond that prevents ato - oxygen atoms react and more hydrogen is produced.

A strong bond of metal - oxygen generated from direct hydrogen production.
'We're amazed to findings which hydrogen can be produced directly during the catalyst-doped europium oxide,' said Lu. 'This will engarahkan at a better use of methane; lower natural gas costs, which can reduce our dependence on fossil fuels,' he added.

Stuart Taylor, a expert on heterogeneous catalysts for selective oxidation at Cardiff University, commented that the 'Formation of hydrogen directly from the partial oxidation of methane is very desirable, but to achieve high results, the less stable products of oxidation of thermodynamics should be more controlled. "

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Minimize emissions of carbon dioxide.

Minimize emissions of carbon dioxide.
An integrated process for producing energy from burning waste methane without carbon dioxide has been proposed by British scientists. With the weather change is a threat today, the reduction of CO2 emissions is essential. But the increasing energy demand means the solution is not as simple as cutting the burning of fossil fuels. Michael North and his team at Newcastle University says that it is possible to maintain energy production and as soon as possible to change the CO2 waste into useful chemicals that prevent the financing associated with carbon capture and storage.

North system uses a membrane to separate and provide pure oxygen in the fuel that provides a clean burning, by eliminating a NOx production. Then, given the CO2 waste into a reaction mixture with a is then fed into a reaction mixture with an epoxide and a catalyst that produces carbonate - carbonate. Cyclic carbonate has many applications - applications including degreasing agent, and solvent elektrolite.

Although the reuse of waste CO2 is to create a cyclic carbonate is not a new idea, previous proposals include the use of a catalyst that requires a temperature above | 150 ° C and high pressures that require more energy to be included. North previously had developed an aluminum complex with kokatalis Tetrabutylammonium bromide as a reaction to mengkatalisasikan temperature range 20-100 ° C, in accordance with the waste heat from power generation.

A catalyst Tetrabutylammonium allow conversion of carbon dioxide under mild conditions.
'Elegance of this systematic is you are not making a CH or CC bond of the new, so the reaction is exothermic,' said North.

Nilay Shah, an expert in chemical engineer at Imperial College London, England, was impressed by this system. 'This is about the creativity to find the best molecules to make the CO2, so you can start to create a molecule with a high volume of real,' he said.

North shows this process in laboratory scale but said that he was confident this can be made into the process of continuous flow to commercial systems. He also plans to further research on the catalyst tolerance to water and other impurities.

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Kerosene and Uses.

Use of kerosene for lighting in the developed countries increasingly reduced, now kerosene used for heating. The most important usage of kerosene, among others:

Oil Lamps.
Kerosene as lamp oil is produced by direct distillation, the properties that must be considered when kerosene is used as lamp oil is:

Color
Kerosene divided in different color classes:

* Water spirit (no color)
* Prime spirit
* Standard spirit

In India, users in rural areas do not want to buy kerosene and white because I thought it was water and thought only of yellow or brown that can burn it properly.

Fuel properties.
Kerosene flame depends on the chemical composition of petroleum:
* If it contains many aromatic fire can not be raised because the fire started berarang.
* Alkane-alkane has a flame the very best.
* The nature of fuel napthen located between aromatic and alkane.

Viscosity
Oil in kerosene lamp wick flow due to capillary forces in narrow channels between the fibers axis. Kerosene flow depends on the viscosity of the liquid that is if the oil is thick and light high-rise has a large, the flame will remain low and the axis of the charcoal (burnt) because of lack of oil.

Sulfur levels
Just as levels of sulfur in gasoline.

Fuel for heating and cooking
Various kinds of kerosene burner:
* Tool burner with flat axis: It smells bad.
* Tool-burner with a wick round: have a centralized air filling.
* Tool burner with pengabutan press: primus trademark

Motor fuel
Motors which use kerosene as a fuel is:
* Agricultural equipment (tractors).
* Ship fishery.
* A small electric light aircraft.

This motor has a carburetor but also has a vaporizer for kerosene. This motor starts running with gasoline and kerosene that continued with the vaporizer hot enough. This motor will work well if the aromatic content in gasoline higher.

Solvent for bituminous
Kerosene type of white spirit is often used as a solvent for bituminous asphalt.

Solvent for the insecticide
Insect powder made from flowers Chrysant (Pyerlhrum cinerarieotollum) which has been dried and crushed, as the solvent used kerosene. For this purpose kerosene must have a bad odor or an inhaler that usually contain fragrances.

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Identification Unit Operations in Process And Industrial Chemistry.

Unit Processes and Unit Operations is the core of Industrial Chemistry, because the unit processes and operations in this process is to determine whether economic or a process. As explained in Chapter I, Unit Operations is the part of the process system, which in this section is more emphasis on changes that are more physical, while the emphasis on process units that are chemical changes. Course of the two units are required tools (equipment) to make changes. Equipment for unit operations enough, in which some symbols of the equipment has been discussed in the previous sub-chapter.

One that should be considered in the process system is a continuous process and the process is not continuous. The process is not continuous (batch) or called by Tumpak is a system process when the process there is no insert (input) and output (output). The process with continuous or continuous system is a system process when the process is entered and the output. If only there or just put it there just the output or sometimes issued or added during the process, the process is called a semi Tumpak (semi-batch).

In the continuous system (continuous) after some time will occur a steady state (steady state), it is because the system does not happen accumulation or accumulation = 0, where the general formula of a system can be expressed as:

[accumulation = input - output].

Accumulation is a change of variables observed in these systems (eg concentration, temperature) as a function of time. Thus the continuous system in a condition where input = output, as a result of accumulated = 0, or in other words with the steady-state system is a system where the observed variable (eg concentration or quality of the product) does not change with time or is not a function of time. Conversely, Tumpak system, the observed variables will change during the observation time.

Based on these conditions, then a chemical industry where the product produced in large quantities, generally carried out by continuous or continuous system. These considerations yand quality products produced will be more uniform. On the other hand to an industry if the amount produced is relatively small (eg the pharmaceutical industry) is the industry uses a batch system or not continuous. The same is done for an industry, where production is seasonal or dependent on consumer demand (eg the clothing industry, textile, food), then the industry will use Tumpak system.

Equipment used for continuous systems are generally smaller than Tumpak system but the system required continuous control tool that is more stringent than Tumpak system.

PROCESS OF CHANGING SIZE SOLID MATERIAL
Almost most solid materials have a size that is large enough to be a process of physical as well as solid kimia.Bahan small size would be easier to handle. In addition, the process is heterogeneous (two phase), eg solid-liquid or solid-gas depends on the contact between solids with gases or liquids. Where the contact will depend on the solid surface area 242. Therefore the greater the surface area of solids, then either the physical or chemical will be more baik.Untuk increase the surface area of solids, the solid material should be changed in size becomes smaller (size reduction). In general use the word destruction (crushing) and grinding, penggerusan (grinding) to change the solid particles from large to small sizes.

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Types of Industrial Waste.

Waste based on a detailed economic value of waste that has economic value and non-economic waste. Wastes that have economic value to the process of waste will further add value. For example: a drop gula.Tetes factory waste into raw materials for alcohol factory. Sugarcane residue can be used as raw material for paper mills, because the residue of sugarcane through sulfinasi process can produce pulp pulp. Many more specific plant waste can be processed to produce new products and create added value.

Non-economic waste is waste that is processed in the process of any form will not provide added value, unless it easier disposal system. This type of waste is often a problem of pollution and environmental damage; viewed from the source can be a waste byproduct and can also be a kind of "catalyst".

Because the material things need water at the beginning of the process, while at the end of the process of this water must be removed again that it already contains a number of hazardous and toxic substances. In addition there are also a number of water contained in the raw materials must be removed with other waste. There is waste contained in the materials and must be discarded after the production process. But there are also factory waste because the addition of auxiliary materials.

By their very nature, the waste is classified into 3 parts, namely sewage, waste gas / fumes and solid waste.

There are certain industries produce wastewater and solid waste that is difficult to distinguish. There are some things that are often mistakenly identified the effluent, which is waste water from cooling. A plant needs water for cooling the engine, then use the river which was contaminated due to other sectors. Because of the need for cooling water only and not for others, it is not appropriate if water is contaminated it is said comes from the factory. Plant only uses water that has contaminated the water plant should always be done at various places with different times for the studied sample really shows the real situation.

Waste gas / smoke is the use of waste as a medium of air. Plant out of gas, smoke, particles, dust through the air, assisted by the wind provide pollution coverage is quite extensive. Gas, smoke and other accumulated / moist air mixes with the added weight of lead particles and night fell with the dew.

Solid waste is the waste in accordance with the nature of solids is a side result of the production process. In some specific industries waste is often a problem because for the disposal process also requires a single plant. Waste town facing any problem making the city clean. Sometimes it is not only a problem processing system but meaningful, discarded after processing. According to the nature and inherent characteristics of the waste has either physics, chemistry and biology.

Waste water have all three of these characteristics, while the waste gas that is often judged on just one characteristic such as solid waste. In contrast to the solid waste assessment is characteristic of physics, while karakteristikkimia and biological assessment from the point of getting a result. Solid waste due to the qualitative views of the water and waste while the waste gases from the point of qualitative and kuantitatif.Sifat each type of waste from the source of waste tergandung.

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Making Biodiesel and Biodiesel Industries.

Biological catalysis technique (Biocatalysis) to produce biodiesel, Oleic acid alkyl ester (in this case oleic butyl), of triolein with several kinds of biological catalysts, ie B Candida Antarctica, Rizhomucor Miehei, and Pseudomonas Cepacia. Because of high prices compared to the biological catalysts of chemical catalysts, the use of biological catalysts are made by immobilisasi the catalyst.

This technique allows for both continuous process in biodiesel production. Optimum reaction temperature is 40oC. It can also be used solid catalyst (solid catalyst) of sugar by doing the pyrolysis of the sugar compounds (D-glucose and sucrose) at temperatures above 300oC. This process causes imperfect carbonization of the sugar compounds and the formation of sheets of aromatic carbon polisiklis (polycyclic aromatic carbon sheets). Sulfuric acid (sulfuric acid) was then used to mensulfonasi the aromatic ring to produce the catalyst.

The resulting solid catalyst in this manner mentioned have the ability to convert plant oils into biodiesel is higher than that of liquid sulfuric acid catalyst or other solid acid catalysts that have been there before.

Biodiesel is a simple chemical compound that contains six or seven kinds of fatty acid esters. Biodiesel is defined as the methyl esters with carbon chain lengths between 12 and 20 of the fatty acids derived from vegetable oils for example lipid or animal fat. Vegetable oils or animal fats can be made biodiesel by transesterification reaction using alkohol.Komposisi and chemical properties of biodiesel depend on the purity, the short length, degree of saturation, and the structure of the alkyl chain fatty acid constituent.

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel from renewable sources (renewable), with the composition of fatty acid esters from vegetable oils include: palm oil, coconut oil, castor oil fence, cotton seed oil, and still there is more than 30 kinds of plants that are potential to Indonesia made biodiesel.

The process of making Biodiesel

Biodiesel is made through a chemical process called transesterification. This process produces two products of methyl esters (biodiesel) / mono-alkyl esters and glycerine which is a side product. The main raw material for biodiesel production include vegetable oils, animal fats, fat old / fat recycling. Meanwhile, as the supporting material that is alcohol. In making the catalyst needed for biodiesel esterification process. Biodiesel products depending on the vegetable oils used as raw materials and preliminary processing of these raw materials.

Alcohol is used as a reactant for the vegetable oil is methanol, but can also be used ethanol, isopropanol or butyl, but it should be noted also in the alcohol content of the water. When the high water content will affect the results of low quality biodiesel, because the content of soap, ALB and high trigiserida. Besides the results of biodiesel is also influenced by the high operating temperature of the production process, the length of mixing time or mixing speed of alcohol.

Catalyst is also required to enhance solubility during the reaction, commonly used catalyst is a strong base is NaOH or KOH or sodium metoksida. The catalyst will be chosen depending on used vegetable oil, crude oil when used with ALB content of less than 2%, well formed and also glycerin soap.

Catalysts are generally very hygroscopic and reacts to form a chemical solution that will be destroyed by the reactant alcohol. If more water is absorbed by the catalyst is a catalyst work less well so poorly biodiesel product. After the reaction is complete, the catalyst must neutralize by adding a strong mineral acid. After being washed biodiesel neutralization process can also be done with the addition of washing water, HCl can also be used for the neutralization process 318 base catalyst, when used acid to produce phosphate fertilizers phosphat (K3PO4).

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Safety Management.

Production process by operating various equipment in general is not entirely free from risk of harm. This should mejadikan attention from management and technical units and specifically responsible for work safety. Thus the work safety will always be considered part of the decision-making and policy setting so that efforts to prevent accidents and illness due to work has begun planning history.

1. identify each process and control equipment losses as a source of hazard risk,
2. estimating the control program plan accidents and illness due to work,
3. control program planning accidents and illness due to work,
4. develop the necessary communications systems, and
5. providing facilities and equipment and personnel and professional terlaith.

Workplace safety management must be able to find and reveal the operational weaknesses that allow for work due to illness and accidents. Managerial discretion described in the operational implementation of the level of the management aspect is very essential for the sustainability of production processes and safety is directed at the participation of all parties in the management and organizational systems, will be able to create a comfortable working atmosphere as strong landasa for business continuity and security of investment in development.

Hiverces and safety must be viewed as a technical effort an enormous managerial functions and role in:

1. Securing the investment.
2. Maintaining continuity and business continuity.
3. Mengembangkah economic potential.
4. Enhance the benefits of the production device.
5. Maintain and enhance the work productivity of labor.

Improved quality of human resources via three-way in improving the quality of knowledge and skills, namely:

1. point of formal education,
2. training track, and
3. lines of work experience.

Improving the quality of human resources is very important not only to improve your operational work technically, but also the ability to work safely and the ability to create conditions and safe working environment and healthy.

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polymers.

Polymer properties.
Thermal properties.
The nature of the polymer to heat there is to be soft when heated and hard when cooled, the polymer is called termoplas.
For example: plastic used for bags and plastic bottles.
While polymer becomes hard when heated called thermoset, for example melamine

Flexibility nature.
Polymers would have different flexibility with synthetic polymers. Natural polymers generally rather difficult to be printed at will, whereas the synthetic polymer molds made it easier to produce a particular shape. Rubber would be easier mengembangdan lost after too long kekenyalannya taxable gasoline or oil.

Resistance to microorganisms.
Natural polymers such as wool, silk, or cellulose can not stand on microorganisms or caterpillar (termites). While synthetic polymers are more resistant to microorganisms or worm.

Other properties.
Other polymer properties depend pemakainnnya for packaging or industrial equipment. For the purpose of packaging should be noted:
* Toxicity
* Power resistant to water, oil or hot
* Power through the air (oxygen)
* Flexibility
* Transparent

Usability And Against Environmental Impact Polymers.
In everyday life many of the items used are synthetic polymers ranging from plastic bags for shopping, plastic food and beverage packaging, plastic packaging, electrical equipment, tools, household appliances and electronic equipment. Each of our purchases in small quantities, for example diwarung, always we will have plastic wrap and plastic bags (keresek).

These items are synthetic polymers that can not be broken down by microorganisms. As a result, these items will accumulate in the form of waste that can not be decomposed. Or clogged drains causing flooding. Rubbish synthetic polymers do not burn, because it would produce dioxin compounds. Dioxin is a compound of highly toxic gases and carcinogenic (causing cancer).

Vinyl chloride plastic is not harmful, but the vinyl chloride monomer is very toxic and carcinogenic causing birth defects. Plastics are used as food wrappers, if exposed to heat will decompose monomernya concern and will mengontamiasi food.

To reduce plastic pollution:
1. Reduce use of plastic
2. Plastic garbage must be separated by organic waste, which can be recycled.
3. Do not throw plastic garbage carelessly.
4. Do not burn plastic waste.

To avoid the danger of poisoning due to the use of plastic:
1. Use a food packaging more secure, such as glass.
2. Use of smell, if the food / plastic smell minumam not used.

Condensation polymerization
In this condensation polymerization, in addition to producing polymer compounds also produce other substances that simple molecular structures (small).

Monomer + monomer + ... .. → Polymer + other substances

Nylon formation (synthesis)
Nylon manufacture of monomers heksanadionat acid (Adipic acid) with 1,6-diamino hexane. The reaction is a carboxylic group (-COOH) reacts with the amino group (-NH2) through a peptide bond (HNCO) and nylon and generate water molecules.

The formation of protein (natural)
Protein composed of D amino acids as monomers. Formation such as the nylon is the reaction of carboxylic groups (-COOH) with the amino group (-NH2) through a peptide bond (HNCO) with a protein and water.

Polymer Characterization
Characterization of polymers is based on:
1. Type of monomer, whether the same or different monomernya
2. Composition of monomer unit, whether organized or not
3. Polymer structure, whether straight, branched or network (crosslink).
Of these factors the polymer are classified into:

Homopolimer
This polymer-monomer terbenuk of similar monomers.

M + M + .... → - [M-M-M-M] --

Monomer Polymer
Copolymers
These polymers formed from the monomer-monomer is a different kind. And composition of monomers joined together.

Copolymers is further subdivided into:
Statistical copolymers: copolymer with a monomer composition of irregular form.

- [A - B - B - A - A - A - B - A - A - B - B - B] --

Block copolymers: composition of monomers that form a regular basis with a certain amount.

- [A - A - B - B - A - A - B - B - A - A - B - B] --

Alternating copolymers: composition of monomers alternately formed.

- [A - B - A - B - A - B - A - B - A - B - A - B] --

Branched copolymers: composition of monomers which is a branch.

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Type Compressors.

In a positive-displacement type, number of air or gas in-traps in the compression space and is mechanically volumnya decreased, causing a certain pressure and then streamed out. At constant velocity, the air flow remains constant with variations in spending pressures.

Enegi dynamic compressor speed to provide air or gas flow is continuously using a rotating impeller at very high speeds. Velocity energy into pressure energy due to the influence of impeller and volute expenditure or diffusers. In the dynamic type of centrifugal compressor, the shape of the blade-blade impeller determine the relationship between air flow and pressure (or head) is raised.

Reciprocating compressors.

In the industry, most reciprocating compressors used to compress air and refrigerant.Prinsip both work like a bicycle pump with the flow out characteristics which remained almost constant in the range of a particular expenditure pressures. Also, the compressor capacity directly proportional to the velocity. Output, such as pulses.

Reciprocating compressors are available in various configurations; there are four types of the most widely used is the horizontal, vertical, horizontal balanceopposed, and tandem. Types of vertical reciprocating compressors used for the capacity between 50 to 150 cfm. Horizontally opposed compressor is used to balance capacity between 200 - 5000 cfm for multistage designs and up to 10.000 cfm single stage design (National Productivity Council, 1993).

Reciprocating air compressor is usually a single action where the emphasis is only using one side of the piston. Compressor that works using two sides of the piston is called the action is considered ganda.Sebuah compressor single stage compressor
if the whole emphasis is to use a single cylinder or a cylinder parallel.

Some application of compression performed on a stage. Ratio
compression that is too large (out of absolute pressure / pressure in absolute) can cause excessive temperatures ataumasalah expenditure other designs. Two-stage machines are used for high pressure usually has a temperature lower expenditure (140 to 160oC), whereas at one stage engine higher temperature (205 to 240oC).



Dynamic Compressor.

Centrifugal air compressor (see Figure 5-16) is a dynamic compressor, which depends on the transfer of energy from the impeller rotates in the air. Rotor do this work by changing moments and the air pressure. This moment changed to a certain pressure to decrease slowly in the air difuser static.

Centrifugal air compressors are designed compressor lubricant free. The lubricated gear lubricating oil is separated from the air by using sil separators on atmospheric and ventilation shaft. A centrifugal compressor works continuously, with few moving parts, more suitable for use in large volume in which oil-free is required on air.

Centrifugal air compressor with cooling water and can form packages; particular package including aftercooler and all controls. Compressor characteristic is known to differ when compared with the small reciprocating.Perubahan engine compression ratio to produce the large changes in the compression and efficiency. Centrifugal machine is more suitable for large capacity applied over 12.000 cfm.

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Fuel Factory.

Fuel is defined as material which when burned can continue the combustion process itself, along with heat expenditure. The fuel can form solids, liquids, or gases that can react with oxygen (air) in eksoterm. Eksoterm heat of reaction can be directly used for heating or often also changed first into other energy forms (typically into steam).

Significant quantities of hot fuel is low "(lower Calorific Value), which states the amount of heat that usually obtained in the combustion under normal circumstances. This quantity is expressed dalarn units kcal / kg, kJ / kg, kcal / ml or kJ / mi. The more refined measure of fuel, the faster the material is burned and the easier it is measuring and setting. In addition, the excess air required for combustion is smaller.

This means the temperature is higher. For example, use of heat from the combustion process directly is: to cook in the kitchens of households, heating installations, are examples of the use of indirect heat is: nergi heat converted into mechanical, such as the motor fuel; heat converted into electrical energy, eg the diesel power plants; power gas and steam power.
Combustion

Combustion is a rapid chemical reaction between oxygen and combustible materials, accompanied by the emergence of light and generate heat. Spontaneous combustion is the burning of where the material that oxidized perlahanlahan generated heat is not released, but used to raise the temperature of the material gradually until it reaches the temperature of the flame.

Perfect combustion is the burning of which all constituents can be burned in the fuel to form CO2, water (= H2O), and SO2 gas, so that no more material left to burn.
Kinds of Fuel

1. Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
2. Nuclear fuel, such as uranium and plutonium. In the nuclear fuel, heat obtained from the chain reaction
3. Other fuels, such as: the rest of the plants, vegetable oil, animal oil.

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