Unity accelerate neuron toxicity testing.

Scientists in Germany have developed an alternative to animal testing of rapid screening and identification of chemical substances that contain a health risk to the nervous system. Several laboratories worldwide neurotoksinitas facing daunting challenges in screening chemicals for catalog growth for whatever identify risks to human health, with the introduction of legislation mnegacu - invitation of the EU's Reach. Toxicity testing has been done traditionally by using animals but with the cost overruns in relation to the funds and the number of animals, salinity penggujian reliable in vitro is needed. Lack of comparable readings between in vivo and in vitro systems can mnyajikan suaatu problems, said Jonathan West at the University of Dortmund, Germany, but West said he had to settle these problems by using neural network.

This new testing platform, called the network formation assay (NFA), to monitor the connection (or developments) specifically between neurons - the neurons are placed and their neighbors. Formation of some of these connections is one of the basic principles in memory and learning, and gangguannnya is often the clinical signs neurotoksinitas, said West. 'Because the NFA test the connections of neurons then presents a model in vitro are comparable with the situation in vivo', he added.

West put the neurons - in the composition of human neurons segilima using patterns of cells - the cells and subsequent formation easier to monitor its network. Composition becomes acrylamida exposure, a neurotoxin that blocks the reference compounds and network formation to distinguish between the effects of neurotoxins with cytiotoksin. Without the need to place neurons - neurons or measure the length of connections, this means that a typical arrangement should only take three hours compared with more than 200 hours in testing manually.

'Application of simple and sophisticated micro system - this engineering can significantly improve the standard biological protocol', says Marco Cecchini, an expert on high-level resolution pemolaan biomaterials, the National Enterprise for nanoscience and nanotechnology, Pisa, Italy.

'NFA will also be applied in the context of reproductive testing of toxin levels are expected mngkonsumsi approximately 60% of all animals required for Reach and further areas most needed for the new assay in vitro' add Marcel Leist, University of Konstanz, Germany , who worked on this project together with the West.

Today, the team is working with teams throughout Europe to adopt the NFA in use with a network of neuron cells but 'real acid test will digunakankah NFA or not adopted by the laboratory neurotoksikologi and accepted by the authorities,' said West.

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Jokichi Takamine, Japanese chemist Pioneer.

Name : Jokichi Takamine.

Born : 11/03/1854

Died : 22/07/1922

The main disciplines: Chemical Science.

Jokichi Takamine was born on 3 November 1854 in Takaoka, Japan. His father, Seichi, was a physician like most fathers in the family Takamine. Unlike his peers, Takamine learn English at a very young age. He attended school in Osaka, Kyoto, and Tokyo, graduated from the college of science and technique at the University of Tokyo in 1879. In that year, the Japanese government chose Takamine as one of 12 people receiving a scholarship to pursue advanced studies at the University of Glasgow in Scotland and the Anderson Campus. He returned to Japan in 1883 and joined the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce.

In 1884, Takamine made his first trip to the United States to follow the Cotton Exposition to 100, where he met his future wife, Caroline Field Hitch. They were married in 1884 you have two children. This family then moved to Japan, and Takamine continue working in the Department of Agriculture and Commerce as Chief of Chemical Division until the year 1887. At that time, he formed his own company, the Tokyo Artificial Fertilizer Company, where he subsequently isolating the starch digestive enzymes, Takadiastase, from a fungus.

In 1884, moved to the United States Takamine permanently, settling in New York City. He opened his own research lab and allow Parke, Davis & Company produces commercial Takadiastase. In 1901, he was to isolate and purify the hormone adrenaline in his laboratory, and became the first person to complete hormone glands.

For the rest of his life, Takamine traveling between the United States and Japan and make a real contribution to science in both countries. He also worked to enhance better understanding between the two countries, and Japan participated in a donation to charity to Washington DC. Takamine Jokichi died on July 22 in the year 1922 in New York City.

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Microwells to detect odors.

news
United States scientists have developed a microfluidic-based platform that filters out hundreds of cells at a time and can be used to identify the behavior of cells that are rare in helping to stem cell research and cancer biology, they claim.

Ten of the hundreds of odorant molecules can be distinguished by the nose. Olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) in the nasal odorant chemical signals translate into a unique neuronal signals which guide the behavior of many important. Odours activate odorant receptors (ORS) in which there are over 1000 types in mice. Each OSN showed only or in the type of OR, but due to large amounts is not possible to analyze the response during all types of odour-OR OSN using current techniques.

Albert Folch now at the University of Washington, Seattle and his team have developed a method to filter out nearly 20 000 single cells at a time on the unity of microwell. By using calcium imaging they were able to detect and analyze a number of odorant responses of rat OSNs simultaneously, clearly Folch, by enabling the cells with a rare pattern of responses found.

Folch compare several responses OSN with four odors of different fruits (vanilla, roses, berries and bananas) in one experiment. By using calcium imaging, the response of neurons identified by measuring changes in fluorescence signal. Folch explains that by using microwell to be placed on hundreds of OSNs in the camera visibility means that all the ORS should be represented in the sample. 'I believe that these microarrays are very powerful at finding the rare cells showing a particular pattern of response of which is not likely to be found with any reason' he said.

Tim Holy, who examined the olfactory system in rats at Washington University in St. Louis, United States, saying that 'This is an elegant new approach to record many neurons simultaneously maintained under stimulus conditions very well. "

Folch said that his team would eventually develop a system whereby cells are exposed to some odour in the gas phase, 'I expect, but can not prove, that the various problems with OSN survival and artifacts pembauan / adaptation comes from the fact bahwasannya odorant ( most of them dissolved in the water) just as if 'he added.

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Ketene derived from cold temperatures..

Meldrum acid break down when heated by the loss of acetone and carbon dioxide to form ketene, which has two lines of reactivity: on cyclobutanedione dimerization, or in the presence of an additional nucleophile to produce the corresponding esters or amides.

Researchers in the United States and Korea have shown how an unusual functional groups, which have been widely ignored in chemical materials, can be incorporated into the polymer to provide both grip rekatif to attach molecules - another molecule and a route to cross and connect the chain adjacent polymer.

The scientists showed that the various monomers, such as styrene, can be repaired with Meldrum acid, and after that dipolymerisasikan. This includes the spine into the Meldrum acid polymer when heated and some have diiproduksi ketene. In this way polymer terfungsionalisasikan with ketene group. this is very easy to adjust the amount of acid that contains some polymer Meldrum them. For example, we have made of polymers that contain 98 percent of polystyrene with only 2 percent Meldrum acid-containing reactive monomer, or 100 percent of monomer acids Meldrum.

Merger polymer chains can be cross-linked via ketene group, while leaving some remaining ketene which is available for further chemical material.

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Rodanano biggest mystery is solved.

Researchers in the UK and Germany has uncovered the mechanism behind how one of the most powerful chemical structures develop by itself, the biggest wheels of a molecule made of molybdenum oxide, spontaneously produce by itself. These findings have important implications kelihatnnya in memanupulasi assembly reaction by itself and equip a new way to create a useful molecular architecture. Approximately 15 years ago, Achim Müller and his colleagues at the University of Bielefeld in Germany showed that a simple mixture of sodium molybdate, water and a reduction in low pH agents spontaneously form molecular wheel donut-shaped molybdenum oxide.

Almost 4nm diseberangnya there is more than a distance larger than the structures seen before, and showed the unique class of molecules with many potential applications for materials and nano sciences. However, the mechanism of self-assembly remains unknown.
Today, Lee Cronin of the University of Glasgow in the UK and his colleagues have revealed this mystery by solving the reaction in the flow space. Here the introduction into the space below the reactant flow. Addition of a constant of the reactant at the entry point to develop a stable condition, allows the production of the initial reaction to accumulate close to the point of entry. In part this room opara researchers looked at crystals precipitated from solution. X-ray crystallography showed that the crystal - a flat disc-shaped crystal that includes 186 molybdenum atoms, after the show includes 36-Mo in the central core that contains the 150-Mo-hole wheels.

When the wheels are arranged, the addition of eight electrons increase the repulsion between the ring and the template, resulting in a collection of 36-Mo released wheels archtypal molybdenum has a large negative charge - this is reduced to 28 electrons, where we determine that the wheel - the wheel of molecular stood at 20 electrons flow system is reduced. This shows that the collection of 36-Mo serves as a template around molybdenum combined into a ring and two atomic units is held in common - the same by the ions - sodium ions and hydrogen bonds. Under reduced conditions, electrostatic repulsion eventually reach the point where the center wheels are removed: serves as the smallest set of templates that would create a temporary guest host and then leave.

Prove the usefulness of this approach in other systems open the assembly itself. What we have in the show is to track these complex reactions that produce molecular arsitektuur unusual, we can trap the continued and learn how to start manupulated known systems and designing new anymore.

John Errington, a specialist in nanostructured metal oxides at Newcastle University in England, said that the implications of this new job has been great. 'The ability to direct nanoskala structure obtained from a dynamic mix of constitutional molecular building blocks of metal oxides has been the biggest challenge since Müller and coworkers first time reveal the origin of the form "big ring" great reduce molybdate solution, "said Errington. 'Use of the brightest of the flow of chemical science seems to provide the basis for a general synthetic strategy that will further broaden the areas of interest in the science of chemistry. "

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Magnetic iron Nanokatalis.

Nano particles of iron oxide catalyst that can make recycling more efficient for organic reactions. The catalyst is environmentally friendly, economical and efficient for carbon-carbon bond forming reaction is desired in the chemical industry. Catalysts which can be updated by magnetic particularly attractive due to the easy separation of the reaction mixture. iron oxide nanoparticles are magnetic efficient catalysts that can be reused a dozen times without reducing effectiveness.

Iron oxide nanoparticles that support or immobil been previously used as a catalyst but use them directly without modification him as a catalyst that can be recycled in a magnetic for organic reactions are very rare. to-efektifitasan of nanoparticles on synthetic chemical intermediate medical science, propargylamines. Thanks to the magnetic character of the nanoparticles, they were attached to the rod and the magnetic is very easy to be separated so that they can be washed before reuse.

Iron oxide nanoparticles attached to the stirrer rod when the reaction stopped. Separation and reuse of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles is easy, effective and economical. In addition, the use of iron oxide as a catalyst is also environmentally friendly and safer than other transition metal catalysts.

ease of separation some catalyst prosedurpemisahan help to avoid the difficult and complex which includes filtration and separation materials with round engines, equipment and solvent, thus the aspect pengkontribusian 'environmentally friendly' of the process.

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synthetic disilikat.

A compound consisting of silicon-silicon bond is stable between the two atoms a negative charge - five-coordinate silicon atoms - silicates - have been synthesized and isolated for the first time by Japanese researchers. Species - species disilikat new memberipak unimaginable insights into the silicon chemistry and materials useful for making new optical and conductive.

Usually combined with four silicon atoms - the other atoms to form four-coordinate structure, which can form a bond with the silicon atom coordinates four others. Like structures form the basis of crystalline silicon used for semi-conductors and organosilicon compounds. Previously, the largest number of coordination atoms - atoms of silicon to allow for bonding of silicon-silicon is widely considered to be stable there were four.

Now, Naokazu Kano and his colleagues at Tokyo University and Institute for Molecular Science in Japan have created a Si-Si bond directly between the atoms - five-coordinate silicon atoms from silicates. Surprising result because a bond would be expected to split because Steric and electrostatic repulsi strong between atoms - atoms of silicon. This team successfully synthesized and dianionic compounds mengkarakteristikan which includes atoms - five-coordinate silicon atoms, with Si-Si bond. This is the first example of a silicon-silicon bond.

electrostatic repulsi why do not cause damage to molecules - molecules is that the charge - a negative charge is formally only on silicon. Charge - the charge that [is] distributed among the atoms - atoms that many of the surrounding atoms - atoms of silicon, leaving the [silicon] is positively charged, without Coulomb repulsi.

However, Kost still confused on disilikat dianionic stability. None hydrolysis or heating that cause decomposition compounds, although compounds of silicon mono-nuclear hypervalent tend to dekompos quickly when exposed to air and moisture.

If we can accumulate these bonds in the series to make the silicon wire is made of silicates moieties, [molecular orbital remains high on the molecular orbital not stay low] the energy gap will be more down to help in creating a conductive material such as injecting new polyacetylene.

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ageless medicine

Kupang to drug use of youth.
With the help of Kupang sea, scientists in South Korea has developed a gel that can be injected which can be useful for mnemenuhi wrinkles. Hyaluronic acid hydrogels (HA) is often used as biocompatible materials for drug delivery and tissue engineering, but they have a weak mechanical strength and to degradation in vivo is faster because they absorb water and to enzymatic degradation.

By adding an acid amino acid found in Kupang, more stable and adhesive hydrogels made by Tae Gwan Park and his colleagues from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon.

A common amino acid in Kupang to make the gel attached to the network.
Park uses amino acids, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, which are common in Kupang adhesive layer which makes it easier to stick firmly to a variety of organic and inorganic surfaces. Amino acid makes the gel stick to the network, certainly Park, which makes it useful for tissue engineering, drug delivery and even to fill wrinkles. Hydrogels fluid injected into the body where as soon as possible turned to the gel during temperature changes. 'Formation of gel in the body can act as a suspension for supporting the release of the drug, or the network formation can act as the glue network, "said Park.

Zhiyuan Zhong from Soochow University, Suzhou, China, who examined hydrogels that can be injected and biodegradable polymer, was impressed with the findings Park. 'These hydrogels have elegantly combined the injection level, the stability in vivo, the ability biodegradability, good mechanical properties, the sensitivity of network properties panasdan a good adhesive.' He added that 'something that can be injected, but a very complex hydrogels are the basis for materials were well received and easy to prepare. "

Park said his team now berencan to use adhesive hydrogels that can be injected to clinical applications with drug therapy in the form of capsules or pressed cells - the cells within them and also worked on testing in vivo.

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Fotokatalis.

Fotokatalis able to see the light.
A nano particle fotokatalis who worked under natural light and can be used to remove pollutants from water has been developed by scientists of China and Japan. Fotokatalis use light to speed up a reaction but most require ultra-violet rays to work. Now, Renhong Li at the University Zhejiang Sci-Tech, China and his colleagues using bismuth to create a catalyst that works under visible light.

Li catalysts using platinum nano particles entered the semiconductor bismuth oxide (Bi2O3). Bi2O3 facilitate delivery of electrons - electrons to take place on the excitation by visible light. This resulted in describing surface molecules - molecules, such as acetaldehyde and formaldehyde.

A fotokatalis natural light can help clean the water.
Average - the average response obtained with the new catalyst is comparable to the one you use UV light, said Li. 'Since most of the existing fotokatalis can only be in - fotoeksitasi - not with UV light, we Pt/Bi2O3 catalyst useful for the purpose of energy savings,' he added.

Leonardo Palmisano, a researcher at the University fotokatalis Palermo, Italy said that 'it showed some results menyakinkanpada photo-oxidation of organic pollutants under visible light illumination, showed a significant effect plasmonik for fotokatalis Pt/Bi2O3.' He added that he saw the application promising for new catalysts.

Li said that this research could provide benefits in the use of platinum and precious metal fotokatalis, such as the use of separation fotokatalis water under visible light which is an area that the team expected to be further investigated.

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Oversee the release.

Oversee the release of the drug when it happened.
A drug delivery system that can track the drugs - drugs by chance has been developed by scientists in Israel. Drug delivery systems in medifikasi send a special section in the body and control the level of their release. They deal with common problems associated with drug treatments - traditional medicines such as low solubility or side effects that are not desirable.

By simply understanding how the drug is released from the delivery tool is crucial in getting good results. 'However, until now, this process can be studied only indirectly in organisms living creature,' said Doron Shabat from the University of Tel-Aviv, Israel. 'Because the behavior of drug delivery systems are widespread, depending on the environment around them, it is important to study them in their functional environment that actually,' he added.

Fluorescence is turned away for a moment the drug delivery devices.
his colleagues designed the reporting of drug delivery system that allows visualization in real time from the release of the drug in a non-invasive treatment and demonstrate the use of in vitro. As a result, the drug release process can be dicitrakan, for the first time, with real time, in living organisms beings.

system produces a fluorescent signal that describes the status of the drug molecules. While connected to the drug molecule delivery devices, fluorescent signal dies. At the time of its release and live fluorescent signal can be detected quickly and dicitrakan.

Rui Moreira, an expert in drug delivery systems (prodrugs) at the University of Lisbon, Portugal welcomes this work. the supervision of Product active a real time insight allows much closer to the kinetic in these cells the overall system. By collecting data aktifisasi activities and a series of studies on single prodrug design will accelerate a more effective. the next task will serve as a liaison which fluoresce at wavelengths longer to monitor the drug release in vivo.

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Increased acidity.

Increased acidity can be deafening Sea Dolphin.
Nowadays a lot of human activities that cause air pollution, soil and water, which is caused by factory waste, industrial fumes, and many more. One example is that more carbon dioxide entering the earth's atmosphere, the carbon dioxide we produce everyday can cause acid rain and also increases the acidity of the ocean becomes more acidic.

In fact, acidification has been blamed for everything from rock to help kill the algae and even help to measure the fish ear bone strength. But changes in ocean chemistry could also alter the absorption of sound in marine ecosystems, according to newspaper published online on Sunday in geoscience natrure report (Scientific American is part of Nature Publishing Group), that changes in ocean chemistry that makes more noise for the animals that depend on sound to navigate the water depth.

Currently the most contentious is the lack of classification of the researchers of the negative impact of ocean acidification, led by Tatiana Ilyina School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology at the University of Hawaii at Honolulu, writing. "However, less attention from the increasing acidity of seawater is its effect on the absorption of sound in the sea. When seawater becomes more acidic due largely produced by humans is the concentration of carbon dioxide from chemical-sound-absorbing chemicals (such as the decay of magnesium sulfate MgSO4) and (boric acid H3BO3 ()), that sound, especially low frequency rumble (up to 5000 hertz), with further distance.

Using the model outputs of carbon dioxide and the oceans of the world, the researchers found that the absorption of sound could fall by around 60 percent at high latitudes and the water depth in the next three centuries. Adding r sound frequencies lower than the human marine activities, such as construction, shipping and sonar, and you'll really get a frenzied scene for many residents in the sea.

The authors in western countries concluded, "They estimate that during the twenty-first century, chemical absorption of sound in this frequency range [100-10 hertz] will almost halve in some areas that experienced significant disruption emanating from industrial activities,". Some noise at low frequencies caused naturally by waves and rain at sea level and also by the animals themselves. "However, the penlis noted," high levels of low-frequency sound has a number of behavioral and biological effects on marine life, including tissue damage, mass of Cetacean (a type of mammals / whales and dolphins) stranded and temporary hearing loss in dolphins.

Of course, increasing the sound propagation also help some animals aural acuity. Propagation such as sending further communication from the pope on now. . There is evidence that marine species have adapted to the various levels of noise, but the consequences of long-term increase in the frequency of sound transmission is important for many marine mammals are unknown.

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antibiotic resistance

Items damaged antibiotic resistance turned into.
Scientists in the United States have revealed reversible chemical puzzles - puzzles that make microbiologist puzzled experts for many - years: in a colony of bacteria that live in the presence of antibiotics in the natural environment, individuals who are sensitive to antibiotics can live side by side with them ytang be resistant, where logic would dictate that only the resistant bacteria that can survive.

The key to this mystery came back on the antibiotic product is defective, according to recent research by Adam Palmer, Elaine Angelino and Roy Kishony at Harvard University. Scientists learn how the product failed in the emergence of antibiotic tetracycline polyketide naturally affect the population of E. coli exposed to antibiotics.

In this environment, tetracycline, which is produced by Streptomyces bacteria in the soil, naturally broken into several products. This team simulated acid damage from these compounds, by producing the three primary ingredients: stereoisomers of tetracycline called epitetracycline (ETC); together - the same as dehydration products of both itself and tetracycline isomer, called anhydrotetracycline (ATC) and anhydroepitetracycline (AETC ).

Degraded tetracycline into the composition of bioactive compounds, which causes sensitive strain of E. coli strain resistant to release Then, they expose the two tetracycline-resistant strains and tetracycline-sensitive strains of E. coli to antibiotics and product mix breakdown. Typically, where the two populations - sensitive and resistant - are, one would expected that exposure to tetracycline will last from resistant strain. However, in the presence of a defective product will be releasing sensitive strain resistant strain. 'We find that the soup products degraded tetracycline caused tetracycline-resistant bacteria in the competition despite their sensitive cousin,' said Kishony.

One important factor is the degradation products are relatively stable and thus remain exposed to the bacteria they were for some time. This is not usually present in cases in clinical and agricultural areas, where drugs - drugs tend to be cleaned by dilution rather than on degradation.

Precise molecular mechanisms which reverse the degradation products for durability seleski not entirely understood, although what he described as Kishony, 'One of the degradation products, anhydrotetracycline, understood as a potent inducer of the expression of tetracycline efflux pumps [a protein involved in resistance mempompa drugs - drugs kluar of cells - bacterial cells]. An excess production of efflux pumps has a high cost for resistant bacteria."

Julian Davies, a well-known microbial Ecologist at the University of British Columbia in Canada, this study describes as' a brilliant series of studies that have provided an explanation for the success of the survival of sensitive and antibiotic resistant bacteria in the presence of her block. "

Do these findings have clinical significance? 'Unfortunately stereoisomers are toxic to the kidneys, and then not like what was recommended for a therapy, "said Palmer. He added, however, 'This might provide such a lead compound to isolate a compound of non - toxic to select against resistance. More generally these results suggest that derivatives of antibiotics may have the potential to act as a selector against resistance."

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Composition of symmetry led to a surprise.

Usually, you expect the two compounds of similar composition premises, the connectivity of atoms with atoms and also symmetrical so that is chemically identical. But the scientists who investigate the metal organic framework have found a surprising exception to this rule by identifying the two isomers with the same symmetry and bound but different gas storage properties.

A team led by Ma Shengqian at Argonne National Laboratory, Illinois, United States, investigating the molecular tetracarboxylate like a twig (ebdc) which can be attached to a metal atom from one part of any bond on four points, one at each corner of the rectangle. When heated with copper salt at a temperature of 75 ° C, a crystalline phase formed (-phase) and temperature 65 ° C a phase with properties - properties different from that formed (-phase).

So far, it seems normal. But when Ma finished crystal analysis on these two compounds, he found that they have the same composition, the same connectivity and the atom to the same symmetry. 'This type of symmetry that maintains this isomerism has not been studied previously in metal organic framework, "said Ma.

Isomer has the same symmetry but different properties = properties
The key to what has happened lies in the ligand, clearly Ma. In-phase, a ligand bound to the tip end of each unit of copper, which in-phase, they are bound together. This makes the biggest ring in-phase rather than in-phase. Thus, although the same chemical units joined together - each with the same sort of bond and the overall symmetry of the same, the property - the property is still different. In particular, the area available for hydrogen absorption was significantly higher in-isomer: 'This means that it is possible to boost gas storage capacity by finding isomers - the new isomer of unknown structure,' said Ma. Paul Forster, a materials chemist at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, United States, was fascinated by what he called a form of isomerism is 'highly unusual'. 'Structure - which is identical in structure and konektifitasnya composition, but differ on the hole geometry, provides a unique opportunity to address important questions related to the kinetic and thermodynamics of the synthesis of hybrid materials, "he said.

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Bomb explosion mechanism.

Some time ago in various mass media, both electronic and print, often appearing bombing cases in Indonesia. Perhaps we still remember the name of Imam Samudra or Amrozi. Whose names figure soared to post-detonation bomb Bali I and II of this could be a frightening specter. Bombing cases are often linked to both these figures.

However, we know how to process this happened bomb?
Why can arise explosion?

This paper does not intend to teach readers how to make bombs. However, intended to explain in general how a simple mechanism for the bomb blast could happen in terms of chemistry.

In chemical terms, this detonation reaction known as the explosive reaction. The explosive reaction is a chemical reaction that took place very rapidly and takes place in a very short time. This explosive reaction releases a tremendous energy. In a large scale, the reaction is capable of destroying objects that are within a radius of the yield. This reaction in daily life known as a bomb blast.

The reaction is usually run explosion by the catalyst. This catalyst causes a chemical reaction take place quickly. The catalyst is a substance that can increase the speed of reaction without modifying the standard Gibbs energy change of a reaction (Admin Alif, 2005).

Platinum is one example of the catalyst used to accelerate the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen in the gas phase. This reaction can cause an explosion.

From some of the literature, it is known that the catalyst can produce hydrogen atoms from hydrogen molecules and atoms will cause a chain reaction that is very fast.

Besides the catalyst, the reaction explosions can also occur if there is a flame, like flame from a match, and so on. This flame can lead to the formation of free radicals. In a reaction mechanism, these free radicals can cause reactions that produce more branches than one radical. If this radical reaction occurs in significant amounts, the amount of free radicals in a reaction will increase. Finally, the reaction will take place very quickly and will release a huge energy. Furthermore there was an explosion.

Albert Einstein once introduced to the world about the relationship between mass and energy with the velocity of an object known as the equation E = M.C2. If we connect with the reaction of explosions above, obtained a conclusion that a detonation reaction will be even greater if the mass of the reactants (substances which have a reaction) is used in large numbers by the very high speeds. Einstein defines the speed here is the speed of light dikuadratkan. From the use of such a terrible explosion.

In laboratory-scale detonation reaction this could be tested-cobakan. From various literature, in the laboratory there are many chemicals that when mixed can cause an explosion. Although the explosion that happened quite small, but in principle almost any other explosive reaction in a large scale. We live just increase concentration. Next to an explosion, then the catalyst or ditambahkanlah flame to accelerate the reaction or the formation of free radicals. The result will release a large amount of energy.

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The process of changing CO2

The process of changing CO2 in the air into organic raw materials oxalic useful.
In the presence of CO2 in the air, the catalyst (left) reacts to form a complex that contains two oxalate (mostly red), which can be liberated with acid treatment. Cu green, N blue, S yellow, O red, and C black.

In a study with implications for global warming show, the researchers have created a new way to eliminate the greenhouse gas CO2 from the air and form a probable organic materials useful in the process (Science 2010, 327, 313). This technique is still at the demonstration stage but promises to other CO2 foreclosure strategy.

Tool-making process prior to "fix" CO2 include the stoichiometric reaction of the hydroxide and carbonate or bicarbonate catalyst to form the transformation of organic compounds like formaldehyde and methanol. Catalytic conversion more efficient and practical for use in large scale, but the catalyst end - the end can not be used in CO2 in the air because they also reduce oxygen, which is in the air at a very high tingkata of the CO2. In addition, they are not tselektif, creating a mixture of organic products.

Expert Elisabeth Bouwman inorganic chemistry from the University of Leiden, the Netherlands, and his colleagues have now been mengmbangkan a catalyst that reacts with CO2 from ambient air to form a single product oxalate, a useful raw material for the production of other organic compounds. After the reaction, the catalyst was electrochemically diregenerasikan potential reduction in very low, this means that it is highly unusual in energitikal.

The process does not improve the global warming problem properly and probably never will. "Our study purely a fundamental, and the findings will require additional work before they may be applied to the industrial sector," Bouwman said.

However, "it was remarkable that the catalyst was very special to reduce CO2 to oxygen and that the electrochemical step requires very little energy states that" the catalyst structure is almost perfectly adapted to the reaction to work, "commented Clifford P. Kubiak from the University of California, San Diego, a specialist in the conversion of CO2. Compared to the way - another way to remove CO2 from the air, changing greenhouse gases into the catalytic oxalate, efficient and selective "a little longer until the desired top level," he said.

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the Greenhouse Effect.

the positive impact of the Greenhouse Effect.
Global warming is an event that caused the increased greenhouse effect (green house effect). Actually, the greenhouse effect is not a bad thing, just with the greenhouse effect the earth we can keep warm, and even allows us to survive until now.

You can liken the earth like a car that was parked in a sunny weather. You would have thought that the temperature inside the car will be hotter than the temperature outside the car. Sunlight enters the car through the cracks in the glass windows and automatically heat from the sun to be absorbed by the upholstery, carpets, dashboard and other items that were in the car.

When the object is released back to the heat absorbed, not all of heat will be able to exit through the windows, some of it will be reflected back-radiated heat will be back by the objects in the car with a wavelength different. So the number of heat energy would stay in the car, and only a fraction of the energy that can escape. In the end, the car would have periodically increased temperature, the longer will be getting hot.

When the sunlight on the earth's atmosphere and surface, approximately 70% of the energy remained in the earth, is absorbed by land, sea, plants and other objects. 30% the rest is reflected back through the clouds, rain and other reflective surfaces. But 70% of heat is not always there in bumu, because if so then one day our world will be a "ball of fire"). Objects around the planet that absorbs sunlight back often radiates the absorbed heat. Some of these heat into space, stay there and be reflected back to the bottom surface of the earth when the substances in the atmosphere, like carbon dioxide, methane and water vapor. Heat is what makes the earth's surface to stay warm than in outer space, because more energy is absorbed than reflected back. That event is called the greenhouse effect (green house effect).

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Impact of nitrogen oxide.

Impact of nitrogen oxide pollution on health.
Nitrogen dioxide is an air pollutant produced in the combustion process. When nitrogen dioxide is present, nitrogen oxides are also found; combination of NO and NO2 are collectively referred to nitrogen oxides (NOx).

At very high concentrations, which may be experienced only on fatal industrial accidents, exposure to NO2 can cause lung damage is heavy and fast. The influence of health may also occur at ambient concentrations are much lower as in the observation during the pollution incident in the city. Evidence obtained suggests that the distribution of ambient may result from chronic and acute effects, especially in the sub-population groups of people affected by asthma.

NO2 mainly behave as oxidizing agents that may damage the cell membranes and proteins. At high concentrations, the channel will air causes an acute inflammation. Moreover, the spread in short-time effect on increased risk of respiratory tract infections. Although many of controlling the spread is done, the facts clearly defines the relationship between the concentration or dose and their feedback is not enough.

To spread the acute, only very high concentrations (> 1880 mg/m3, 1 ppm) affect the health of people; when, people with asthma or lung disease are more vulnerable to acute lower concentrations.

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nitrogen oxide pollution.

Impact of nitrogen oxide pollution (NOx)
Nitrogen oxide is often referred to as oxides of nitrogen NOx has 2 different forms of nature, namely gas NO2 and NOx gases. NO2 gas properties is colored and smelly, but for NO gas is colorless and odorless. NO2 gas colors are maroon and stinging pungent nose.

NOx levels in the air daearh densely populated urban areas will be higher than rural areas with a population slightly. This is caused by a variety of activities that support human life will increase the levels of NOx in the air, such as transportation, electric generators, waste disposal and others.

NOx air pollution teruatam gas from combustion exhaust gases which result from stationary generators or machines which use natural gas fuel. The presence of NOx in the air can be affected by sunlight that followed fotolitik NO2 reaction cycle as follows:

NO2 + sunlight → NO + O

O + O2 → O3 (ozone)

O3 + NO → NO2 + O2

There are two ways to avoid incomplete combustion, the combustion process is 2, namely:
1. Fuel burned at high temperatures with a number of air stoichiometry in accordance with the equation, for example, by 90 -95% air. NO combustion is limited not by the excess air.
2. Complete fuel burn at relatively low temperature with excess air. Low temperature to avoid the formation of NO.

Both these processes reduce the formation of NO up to 90%. NO2 in humans can be toxic to the lungs, levels of 100 ppm can cause death, 5 ppm after 5 minutes cause shortness of breath.

Sources and Pattern of Exposure
The main source of NOx in the atmosphere is from the street traffic. It is responsible for about half of total emissions in Europe. Another major source is from power plants, heating plants and industrial processes.

Many of NOx emitted as NO, which oxidized to NO2 by ozone or other oxidants.
Although motor kendraan recorded for approximately 50% of NOx emissions, a higher proportion of town. In London, 74% NOx emissions resulting from road traffic.

Strategies for NO2 monitoring data taken from space and the distribution pattern of the population most dominated by road traffic.

Characteristics of pollutants monitoring program designed to NO2 is:
* Concentrations greater determined by road traffic emissions
* This is a homogeneous space, secondary pollutants
* The ratio of peak to mean concentration are statistically strong and useful.

Impact of nitrogen oxide pollution (NOx)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) have two kinds, namely nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Both these gases have different properties and both are very dangerous for health. NO gases that pollute the air is visually difficult to observe because the gas is colorless and odorless. While NO2 gases pollute the air when easily observed from the smell very pungent and reddish-brown color. Air containing NO gas in the normal range is relatively safe and harmless, except if the gas is in NO concentration. NO gas concentrations are high may cause harmful interference to the nervous system resulting in seizures. If this continues poisoning can cause paralysis of will. NO gas will become more dangerous if the gas is oxidized by oxygen gas so as to NO2.

The air is polluted by nitrogen oxides is not only harmful to humans and animals, but also dangerous for the life of plants. The influence of NOx gases in the plant include the emergence of spots on the leaf surface. At higher concentrations of these gases can cause necrosis, or damage to the leaf tissue. In these circumstances leaves may not work perfectly as the formation of carbohydrates temapat through the process of photosynthesis. As a result the plant can not produce as expected. Concentration of 10 ppm NO was able to reduce the photosynthetic ability of leaves to about 60% to 70%.

Air pollution by NOx gases may cause Peroxy nitrates Acetil abbreviated to PAN. This Peroxi Acetil nitrates cause irritation to the eyes that causes the eyes sting and water. PAN mixtures with other chemical compounds in the air can cause a chemical fog photos or photos Chemistry Smog very disrupting the environment.

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pollution.

Forever Not harmful pollution.
We've all heard that the levels of carbon dioxide and the gas-greenhouse gases in the atmosphere continues - canal increased. These gases binding energy of the sun and led to increased global temperature. But a new study shows that some kinds of air pollutants change the chemical composition of clouds, so these clouds reflect more sunlight into space than to the earth. This phenomenon may reduce the effects of global warming caused by greenhouse gases.

Robert Charlson, an atmospheric kimiwan from the University of Washington, said that the aerosol (which the particles are so small they constantly stay in the atmosphere) of industrial pollution affects the composition of clouds. In collaboration with scientists from Consilio Nazionale delle Ricerche, he analyzes a cloud over the Po River Valley, an industrial area in Northern Italy. The researchers took samples of water from a lot of clouds and water vapor, in an attempt to reverse the process of cloud formation.

When the Charlson and his colleagues have analyzed the clouds evaporated, they found that the surface tension of water titik2 reduced by 30% compared to the value of water pressure in general. Surface pressure is the force which attract water molecules to the center, away from the surface. In water, hydrogen atoms are negatively charged and positively charged oxygen atom. This led to a strong attractive force between hydrogen and oxygen, which causes the water molecules attached to each other more than with other molecules.

At other molecules, such as air pollutants, mixed with water, they interfere with some of these hydrogen bonds and lead to reduction in surface pressure. In the process of cloud formation, surface pressure is relatively smaller this caused more water points are established, but in a smaller size. The scientists calculated that 30% reduction in surface pressure can produce 20% more water points and reduce the size of the water point as much as 6%

Charlson compare this situation with a mix of water and sugar with water and detergent mix. When sugar is added to a bottle of water, there will be no bubbles are formed, even if we add the sugar in a large number and shake it. But just by adding a few drops of detergent can make a bottle filled with foam. Try it at home and you will be able to see how the lights reflect on each foam. Some air pollutants have properties such as sugar, while others act like detergents.

According to Charlson and colleagues, increasing the number of water droplets in clouds, the sun can cause 1% more reflected away from Earth. It is important to remember that the aerosols, but can reduce the effects of greenhouse gases, can also alter the basic chemical composition of the atmosphere. NASA mission scheduled for 2003 will be studied in detail and the atmosphere is expected to provide clues on how aerosols affect climate change.

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Greenhouse gases.

On earth, we get the energy from the sun. We will feel the heat when the sun is shining because the earth absorbs some energy from the sun. However, not all the energy is absorbed. Some energy is reflected back into space in the form of heat. Naturally reflected rays from the earth will be released into the air so that the heat in the earth tend to be stable. However, this situation would be disrupted if the Earth's atmosphere is a collection of gas that can block the reflected light into the sky.

As a result the light should stay away from the earth will remain concentrated in the surrounding earth, which grew more and more and make the earth hotter. This phenomenon known as global warming (global warming). Collection of gas that blocks light reflected from the earth called greenhouse gases (green house gases). The effects of greenhouse gases called greenhouse effect (green house effect).

Since the industrial revolution, human activity causes an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations to a level that is not expected. The greatest abundance is carbon dioxide (CO2) which reaches 64% of all greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. While the rest (36%) is a combination of several gases. Before the industrial revolution, atmospheric CO2 levels are still relatively low, ie 280 ppm in 1860. With more and more burning of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, CO2 levels rose to 379 ppm in 2005 (Forster et al, 2007).

Based on the 1996 IPCC guidelines, as revised, is categorized as a greenhouse gas is CO2, methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, a group of gas), perfluorokarbon (PFC, a group of gas), and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6). These gases is also a reference to the Kyoto Protocol (1997). Other greenhouse gases contained in the IPCC 2006 guidelines are nitrogen trifluoride (b3), trifluorometil sulfur pentafluorida (SF5CF3), halogenated ethers, and other halokarbon. Gases containing fluoride such as HFCs, PFCs, SF6, SF5CF3, and g3 can be categorized as terfluorinasi gases (fluorinated gases). These gases are produced primarily as a substitute substances or ozone destroyer Ozone depleting Substances (ODS), particularly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or freon is widely used as a refrigerant and aerosol propellant.

It turned out that the attempt to replace substances damaging the ozone causing new problems, namely global warming. In fact, these substances have the potential of global warming (global warming potential, GWP) greater than CO2. For example, SF5CF3 has 18,000 times GWP GWP of CO2. Nf3, many compounds produced from semiconductor manufacturing process and making this LCD has a GWP of CO2 GWP 16,800 times. But overall, the potential of these compounds have not matched the potential caused by CO2, because CO2 emissions are very large. However, early control of emissions of these compounds should be done so as not to cause greater problems.

Besides the gas-greenhouse gases that have been agreed in the Kyoto Protocol, the scientists also mention some substances to watch out because it contributes to global warming. These substances are ozone, water vapor, and aerosols. These substances can also be categorized as greenhouse gases.

Ozone is a greenhouse gas that is continuously produced and destroyed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions. In the troposphere, human activities have increased ozone levels through the release of gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides, which can chemically react to produce ozone.

Water vapor is a greenhouse gas with the highest levels in the atmosphere. However, human activity does not greatly affect the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere. Aerosols are tiny particles that are in the atmosphere with the size, concentration and chemical composition vary. Aerosols in the atmosphere comes from aerosol emissions directly or formed from other compounds in the atmosphere. Burning of fossil fuels and biomass, and industrial processes release aerosols containing sulfur compounds, organic compounds, and soot. Aerosols in the atmosphere can also arise from nature, such as from volcanic eruptions.

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