Magnetic iron Nanokatalis.

Nano particles of iron oxide catalyst that can make recycling more efficient for organic reactions. The catalyst is environmentally friendly, economical and efficient for carbon-carbon bond forming reaction is desired in the chemical industry. Catalysts which can be updated by magnetic particularly attractive due to the easy separation of the reaction mixture. iron oxide nanoparticles are magnetic efficient catalysts that can be reused a dozen times without reducing effectiveness.

Iron oxide nanoparticles that support or immobil been previously used as a catalyst but use them directly without modification him as a catalyst that can be recycled in a magnetic for organic reactions are very rare. to-efektifitasan of nanoparticles on synthetic chemical intermediate medical science, propargylamines. Thanks to the magnetic character of the nanoparticles, they were attached to the rod and the magnetic is very easy to be separated so that they can be washed before reuse.

Iron oxide nanoparticles attached to the stirrer rod when the reaction stopped. Separation and reuse of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles is easy, effective and economical. In addition, the use of iron oxide as a catalyst is also environmentally friendly and safer than other transition metal catalysts.

ease of separation some catalyst prosedurpemisahan help to avoid the difficult and complex which includes filtration and separation materials with round engines, equipment and solvent, thus the aspect pengkontribusian 'environmentally friendly' of the process.

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synthetic disilikat.

A compound consisting of silicon-silicon bond is stable between the two atoms a negative charge - five-coordinate silicon atoms - silicates - have been synthesized and isolated for the first time by Japanese researchers. Species - species disilikat new memberipak unimaginable insights into the silicon chemistry and materials useful for making new optical and conductive.

Usually combined with four silicon atoms - the other atoms to form four-coordinate structure, which can form a bond with the silicon atom coordinates four others. Like structures form the basis of crystalline silicon used for semi-conductors and organosilicon compounds. Previously, the largest number of coordination atoms - atoms of silicon to allow for bonding of silicon-silicon is widely considered to be stable there were four.

Now, Naokazu Kano and his colleagues at Tokyo University and Institute for Molecular Science in Japan have created a Si-Si bond directly between the atoms - five-coordinate silicon atoms from silicates. Surprising result because a bond would be expected to split because Steric and electrostatic repulsi strong between atoms - atoms of silicon. This team successfully synthesized and dianionic compounds mengkarakteristikan which includes atoms - five-coordinate silicon atoms, with Si-Si bond. This is the first example of a silicon-silicon bond.

electrostatic repulsi why do not cause damage to molecules - molecules is that the charge - a negative charge is formally only on silicon. Charge - the charge that [is] distributed among the atoms - atoms that many of the surrounding atoms - atoms of silicon, leaving the [silicon] is positively charged, without Coulomb repulsi.

However, Kost still confused on disilikat dianionic stability. None hydrolysis or heating that cause decomposition compounds, although compounds of silicon mono-nuclear hypervalent tend to dekompos quickly when exposed to air and moisture.

If we can accumulate these bonds in the series to make the silicon wire is made of silicates moieties, [molecular orbital remains high on the molecular orbital not stay low] the energy gap will be more down to help in creating a conductive material such as injecting new polyacetylene.

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enzyme catalysts.

The way the molecule binds the enzyme catalysts to accelerate their reaction was not as simple as what you think, says chemist from England and Spain. Some enzymes do not need to tie in a way that will best stabilize the reaction transition state, but particularly in a way that minimizes the overall energy barrier for the reaction. Applying this idea to design a new molecular catalysts can help to improve their performance.

People - people often think the reaction with the enzyme catalytic transition state stabilization, said Jonathan Goodman of the University of Cambridge. Transition state can be thought of as the top "hill" that must be energetic climb to the reaction that followed - if the energy is lowered, then the reaction will move faster.

However, what Goodman - together - together with Luis Simón of the University of Salamanca - find when they dig up the protein databank (PDB) to find the way to acquire these enzymes, is that the hydrogen bonding groups at the enzyme active site is not structured to provide stabilization maximum in the transition state.

The addition reaction-type enzyme oxyanion hole in mengakatalisasi carbonyl group (C = O). Goodman explained that they expect to see the location of the active enzyme composed with hydrogen bonding donor at the carbonyl samaseperti extent, because it is known to provide good stabilization of the transition state.

Bond planar (left) of carbonyl compounds to stabilize the transition state is good, but plays its bonds (right) is very good unuk reduce the energy barrier. However, what they find by looking at the structure of the enzyme is that the hydrogen bond donors tend to play out of the field of carbonyl.

This pair found that the bond on the configuration of the molecule also lowered initial reactant - the foundation reaction - and with more than a lowered transition state. This means that the overall energy barrier - the size of the hill of the molecules that must pass - real big sanagt

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ageless medicine

Kupang to drug use of youth.
With the help of Kupang sea, scientists in South Korea has developed a gel that can be injected which can be useful for mnemenuhi wrinkles. Hyaluronic acid hydrogels (HA) is often used as biocompatible materials for drug delivery and tissue engineering, but they have a weak mechanical strength and to degradation in vivo is faster because they absorb water and to enzymatic degradation.

By adding an acid amino acid found in Kupang, more stable and adhesive hydrogels made by Tae Gwan Park and his colleagues from the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon.

A common amino acid in Kupang to make the gel attached to the network.
Park uses amino acids, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, which are common in Kupang adhesive layer which makes it easier to stick firmly to a variety of organic and inorganic surfaces. Amino acid makes the gel stick to the network, certainly Park, which makes it useful for tissue engineering, drug delivery and even to fill wrinkles. Hydrogels fluid injected into the body where as soon as possible turned to the gel during temperature changes. 'Formation of gel in the body can act as a suspension for supporting the release of the drug, or the network formation can act as the glue network, "said Park.

Zhiyuan Zhong from Soochow University, Suzhou, China, who examined hydrogels that can be injected and biodegradable polymer, was impressed with the findings Park. 'These hydrogels have elegantly combined the injection level, the stability in vivo, the ability biodegradability, good mechanical properties, the sensitivity of network properties panasdan a good adhesive.' He added that 'something that can be injected, but a very complex hydrogels are the basis for materials were well received and easy to prepare. "

Park said his team now berencan to use adhesive hydrogels that can be injected to clinical applications with drug therapy in the form of capsules or pressed cells - the cells within them and also worked on testing in vivo.

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Fotokatalis.

Fotokatalis able to see the light.
A nano particle fotokatalis who worked under natural light and can be used to remove pollutants from water has been developed by scientists of China and Japan. Fotokatalis use light to speed up a reaction but most require ultra-violet rays to work. Now, Renhong Li at the University Zhejiang Sci-Tech, China and his colleagues using bismuth to create a catalyst that works under visible light.

Li catalysts using platinum nano particles entered the semiconductor bismuth oxide (Bi2O3). Bi2O3 facilitate delivery of electrons - electrons to take place on the excitation by visible light. This resulted in describing surface molecules - molecules, such as acetaldehyde and formaldehyde.

A fotokatalis natural light can help clean the water.
Average - the average response obtained with the new catalyst is comparable to the one you use UV light, said Li. 'Since most of the existing fotokatalis can only be in - fotoeksitasi - not with UV light, we Pt/Bi2O3 catalyst useful for the purpose of energy savings,' he added.

Leonardo Palmisano, a researcher at the University fotokatalis Palermo, Italy said that 'it showed some results menyakinkanpada photo-oxidation of organic pollutants under visible light illumination, showed a significant effect plasmonik for fotokatalis Pt/Bi2O3.' He added that he saw the application promising for new catalysts.

Li said that this research could provide benefits in the use of platinum and precious metal fotokatalis, such as the use of separation fotokatalis water under visible light which is an area that the team expected to be further investigated.

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Oversee the release.

Oversee the release of the drug when it happened.
A drug delivery system that can track the drugs - drugs by chance has been developed by scientists in Israel. Drug delivery systems in medifikasi send a special section in the body and control the level of their release. They deal with common problems associated with drug treatments - traditional medicines such as low solubility or side effects that are not desirable.

By simply understanding how the drug is released from the delivery tool is crucial in getting good results. 'However, until now, this process can be studied only indirectly in organisms living creature,' said Doron Shabat from the University of Tel-Aviv, Israel. 'Because the behavior of drug delivery systems are widespread, depending on the environment around them, it is important to study them in their functional environment that actually,' he added.

Fluorescence is turned away for a moment the drug delivery devices.
his colleagues designed the reporting of drug delivery system that allows visualization in real time from the release of the drug in a non-invasive treatment and demonstrate the use of in vitro. As a result, the drug release process can be dicitrakan, for the first time, with real time, in living organisms beings.

system produces a fluorescent signal that describes the status of the drug molecules. While connected to the drug molecule delivery devices, fluorescent signal dies. At the time of its release and live fluorescent signal can be detected quickly and dicitrakan.

Rui Moreira, an expert in drug delivery systems (prodrugs) at the University of Lisbon, Portugal welcomes this work. the supervision of Product active a real time insight allows much closer to the kinetic in these cells the overall system. By collecting data aktifisasi activities and a series of studies on single prodrug design will accelerate a more effective. the next task will serve as a liaison which fluoresce at wavelengths longer to monitor the drug release in vivo.

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Waste Eater catalyst.

Chemical experts were also concerned about environmental issues. There is such thing as "green chemistry" of the science of environmentally friendly chemicals. Pollution from industrial waste is now quite concerned. almost all the rivers that flow is no longer clear alias contaminated water. Biodegradable detergents even when used in excess will still damage the environment because the existing ecosystem off hand.

Health experts believe that the water purification process is also still contain pollutants that infinitesimal changes in the parts per million (ppm) to parts per trillon (ppt). Although very little, content of pollutants there could still damage the body's metabolic processes that lead to the intellectual level, immunity, reproduction, until the level of molecular genetics.

Green Chemistry?
We should be grateful that some chemical world development environment called 'green chemistry' has developed quite rapidly. In the last few decades misalny, Green Chemistry Institute of the American Chemical Society continued to support projects that care for the environment. One fairly successful project is Carnegie Mellon University's for Green Oxidation Chemistry. They successfully developed a catalyst that works like enzyme, a catalyst is called tetra-amido-Activators macrocyclic ligand (TAML).

TAML who worked with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can mimic the human body's enzymes work to break down dangerous toxins such as pesticides, textile dyes, and detergents. TAML also able to reduce levels of odor pollution, purify water, to be disinfectants to kill the anthrax bacteria level.

When TAML soluble in water, hydrogen peroxide activated by replacing TAML ligand with H2O2 to H2O groups TAML. Then, H2O2 is not stable H2O decomposes back into oxygen atoms leaving. This oxygen repel each other with iron atoms (Fe) contained in the center TAML group. Interaction is what makes TAML active and able to work as enzymes or free radical scavenger in this pollutant. (For the details can be found at www.cmu.edu / greenchemistry)

TAML believed to revolutionize the use of chlorine as an anti-pollutant that have been widely used industrial society and the world. At the laboratory level, TAML considered promising enough, but at the level of another industry problem. TAML still have to be tested again to observe its effect on the environment when used in amounts not less. Do not let it be TAML new pollutants are no longer resolved. Activation levels high enough TAML also feared could damage the existing ecosystem level because the anthrax bacterium (Bacillus atropheus) capable TAML killed in 15 minutes. In addition, the cost is one of the things to consider, whether the cost to the process of synthesis TAML industrial revolution can draw a strong reaction from industry. Changing a chemical in industrial applications is not easy and inexpensive.

Green Chemistry applications even this still leaves a problem of its own. The people who are not thinking home easily dispose of waste with dreams that can handle TAML. Some seek to be clear that TAML contaminated water and after that the world community must be committed to more love nature. However, can it happen?

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The separation.

The separation of the mixture with light.
Scientists in England have been using light to separate the mixed-complex chemical mixtures. This method can be used to merecovery products and high value-nanoparticle nanoparticles of mixed-catalytic reaction mixture, they claim. Julian Eastoe, at the University of Bristol, and colleagues added surfactant-sensitive surface to the mikroemulsi. When they illuminate the mixture with UV light, causing surfactant oil phase and water phase in the emulsion separated.

Previously, researchers rely on heat, pH changes, or adding salt to separate the phases in mikroemulsi. This new method does not alter the chemical composition mikroemulsi or use as much energy with the separation that uses heat.

"We were quite impressed with the opportunities offered by the activated particles of light, colloids, and the interphase-interphase. This will be more enriching field of chemical engineering" Eastoe said. More importantly, added Eastoe, these divisions are reversible. After a separated dispersed sample, the sample can again didispersi and then separated again.

When the UV rays to disinarkan emulsion, surfactant causing oil and water phases separated.

"What is interesting about this research is that through the addition of a surfactant fotoresponsif, they have been transformed into a mikroemulsi conventional fotoresponsif system," said Ted Lee, an expert in the field of responsive surfactant system at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, United States.

This new method can be used in the release and distribution system-light activated for farmaseutik and agrochemical, Eastoe said. But he said the next challenge is how to make a surfactant-surfactant fotoresponsif a cheap, safe and environmentally friendly.

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Carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes with nitrogen doping for fuel cells cheaper.
Nano-sized carbon tubes (nanotubes) which didoping with nitrogen has the potential to replace expensive platinum catalysts used to reduce oxygen in fuel cells, according to researchers at Ohio (Science 2009, 323, 760). This discovery could reduce the price of fuel cells, which is a promising technology but has a problem to apply on a large scale as in motor vehicles because of high prices in addition to the catalyst in terms of durability.

Didoping nanotubes made of carbon didoping yellow with blue nitrogen that could replace platinum catalysts in fuel cells.

A team led by Liming Dai of the University of Dayton found that a group composed of carbon nanotubes vertically reply, which some carbon atoms can be replaced with nitrogen to reduce oxygen in alkaline solution is better than platinum catalysts which have long been used in fuel cell technology since the 1960s. Moreover, the nanotubes are not affected by the toxic carbon monoxide catalyst in the form of a platinum catalyst proved mendeaktivasi.

Dai explained the main causes of the high activity of nitrogen berdoping nanotubes because the ability to accept electrons from the nitrogen atom will produce a positive charge on carbon atoms next to. These charges attract electrons from the anode and oxygen reduction reaction encouraged. "Disclosure of the new role of nitrogen doping in this study is very important and can be applied to develop a variety of oxygen-reducing catalyst made of an efficient non-metal applications outside of the fuel cells" Dai said.

"This discovery could have a fundamental effect on efforts to commercialization of fuel cell technology, said Yushan Yan, a professor of chemical engineering from the University of California, Riverside. He added that these results can be more real impact if the team can show the results of Dai experiment in acidic media, where platinum is more necessary in such an atmosphere, compared with alkaline media, where there is no other metal is more effective than platinum in acid atmosphere. But knowing that the platinum can be replaced with new non-metal catalyst is already a remarkable progress.

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Upgrading biomass.

Upgrading biomass into fuel.
Making cheap fuel from biomass one step closer, thanks to a new catalyst developed in the United States. The catalyst - made of metal nano particles and carbon nanotubes - stretched the boundaries between water and oil and is very helpful in 'upgrading' raw biomass into useful fuels.

Quantity of biomass produced each year many, such as waste plant material from agricultural and industrial paper, and biodegradable household waste. Mixture can be dipanasakan to produce a slippery fluid called 'bio-oil', which need further improvement before it can be to use.

Bio-oil is made from a compound primarily derived from cellulose and lignin - and so in accordance with the fuel they need to - deoksigenasikan and changed some - about the same size. However the treatment of these reactions is difficult because of high levels of natural water is in the oil. These typically produce emulsions, with smaller molecules dissolved in the water phase, and longer molecules in the oil phase.

Researchers led by Daniel Resasco at the University of Oklahoma now has solved these problems with a catalyst to find out where the boundaries of oil and water meet and allow the reaction in both layers at the same time. These catalysts are made of magnesium oxide nanoparticles with carbon nanotubes that stood between them.

'Metal oxide nanoparticles are hydrophilic and orient the catalyst to water, where the nanotubes are hydrophobic and oriented toward the oil,' Resasco clear. 'On the side of the water itself, we can, put a condensation catalyst that encourages the formation of carbon - carbon to carbon chain length widen,' he added. 'It is crucial, the occasional chain becomes long enough, their solubility in water will fall, and they migrate into the oil phase. "

Carbon nanotubes (puutih) standing in the metal oxide nanoparticles (orange). Particles - particles are drawn into the oil-water interface, and the addition of palladium (yellow) to create a catalyst that can work in two phases

Palladium nanoparticles are also integrated into the structure - allows mixing of hydrocarbons in the oil phase to do that makes them deoksigenasi accordance with conventional fuels. It is very important, the catalyst remains on solid phase and can easily be filtered and recycled.

Robert Brown, a fuel expert at Iowa State University, United States, thinking that this job is something 'remarkable progress' for manufacturing purposes hydrocarbon fuels from biomass. However, he explained that the study is still in its early stages. 'Once you have begun putting catalyst into bio-oil in fact, all predictions will end,' he told Chemistry World. 'Kontaminant may poison the catalyst or clog pores - pores - so still a lot of work to be done. "

But Brown is confident that this process will be key to further development. 'Bio-oil has a very urgent case for the production of fuel that will come,' he said. 'New - recently we have been doing an economic analysis that suggested the route of bio-oil into synthetic fuel is one of the most effective that can be envisioned. "

'Unusual Fungsionalisasi of catalyst also find application in the production of other chemicals,' kataid Cole-Hamilton on Unibversitas St. Andrews, UK. In addition to the recurring cycle of reaction and separation, compounds can even switch between oil and water layers after consecutive reactions.

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Increased acidity.

Increased acidity can be deafening Sea Dolphin.
Nowadays a lot of human activities that cause air pollution, soil and water, which is caused by factory waste, industrial fumes, and many more. One example is that more carbon dioxide entering the earth's atmosphere, the carbon dioxide we produce everyday can cause acid rain and also increases the acidity of the ocean becomes more acidic.

In fact, acidification has been blamed for everything from rock to help kill the algae and even help to measure the fish ear bone strength. But changes in ocean chemistry could also alter the absorption of sound in marine ecosystems, according to newspaper published online on Sunday in geoscience natrure report (Scientific American is part of Nature Publishing Group), that changes in ocean chemistry that makes more noise for the animals that depend on sound to navigate the water depth.

Currently the most contentious is the lack of classification of the researchers of the negative impact of ocean acidification, led by Tatiana Ilyina School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology at the University of Hawaii at Honolulu, writing. "However, less attention from the increasing acidity of seawater is its effect on the absorption of sound in the sea. When seawater becomes more acidic due largely produced by humans is the concentration of carbon dioxide from chemical-sound-absorbing chemicals (such as the decay of magnesium sulfate MgSO4) and (boric acid H3BO3 ()), that sound, especially low frequency rumble (up to 5000 hertz), with further distance.

Using the model outputs of carbon dioxide and the oceans of the world, the researchers found that the absorption of sound could fall by around 60 percent at high latitudes and the water depth in the next three centuries. Adding r sound frequencies lower than the human marine activities, such as construction, shipping and sonar, and you'll really get a frenzied scene for many residents in the sea.

The authors in western countries concluded, "They estimate that during the twenty-first century, chemical absorption of sound in this frequency range [100-10 hertz] will almost halve in some areas that experienced significant disruption emanating from industrial activities,". Some noise at low frequencies caused naturally by waves and rain at sea level and also by the animals themselves. "However, the penlis noted," high levels of low-frequency sound has a number of behavioral and biological effects on marine life, including tissue damage, mass of Cetacean (a type of mammals / whales and dolphins) stranded and temporary hearing loss in dolphins.

Of course, increasing the sound propagation also help some animals aural acuity. Propagation such as sending further communication from the pope on now. . There is evidence that marine species have adapted to the various levels of noise, but the consequences of long-term increase in the frequency of sound transmission is important for many marine mammals are unknown.

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antibiotic resistance

Items damaged antibiotic resistance turned into.
Scientists in the United States have revealed reversible chemical puzzles - puzzles that make microbiologist puzzled experts for many - years: in a colony of bacteria that live in the presence of antibiotics in the natural environment, individuals who are sensitive to antibiotics can live side by side with them ytang be resistant, where logic would dictate that only the resistant bacteria that can survive.

The key to this mystery came back on the antibiotic product is defective, according to recent research by Adam Palmer, Elaine Angelino and Roy Kishony at Harvard University. Scientists learn how the product failed in the emergence of antibiotic tetracycline polyketide naturally affect the population of E. coli exposed to antibiotics.

In this environment, tetracycline, which is produced by Streptomyces bacteria in the soil, naturally broken into several products. This team simulated acid damage from these compounds, by producing the three primary ingredients: stereoisomers of tetracycline called epitetracycline (ETC); together - the same as dehydration products of both itself and tetracycline isomer, called anhydrotetracycline (ATC) and anhydroepitetracycline (AETC ).

Degraded tetracycline into the composition of bioactive compounds, which causes sensitive strain of E. coli strain resistant to release Then, they expose the two tetracycline-resistant strains and tetracycline-sensitive strains of E. coli to antibiotics and product mix breakdown. Typically, where the two populations - sensitive and resistant - are, one would expected that exposure to tetracycline will last from resistant strain. However, in the presence of a defective product will be releasing sensitive strain resistant strain. 'We find that the soup products degraded tetracycline caused tetracycline-resistant bacteria in the competition despite their sensitive cousin,' said Kishony.

One important factor is the degradation products are relatively stable and thus remain exposed to the bacteria they were for some time. This is not usually present in cases in clinical and agricultural areas, where drugs - drugs tend to be cleaned by dilution rather than on degradation.

Precise molecular mechanisms which reverse the degradation products for durability seleski not entirely understood, although what he described as Kishony, 'One of the degradation products, anhydrotetracycline, understood as a potent inducer of the expression of tetracycline efflux pumps [a protein involved in resistance mempompa drugs - drugs kluar of cells - bacterial cells]. An excess production of efflux pumps has a high cost for resistant bacteria."

Julian Davies, a well-known microbial Ecologist at the University of British Columbia in Canada, this study describes as' a brilliant series of studies that have provided an explanation for the success of the survival of sensitive and antibiotic resistant bacteria in the presence of her block. "

Do these findings have clinical significance? 'Unfortunately stereoisomers are toxic to the kidneys, and then not like what was recommended for a therapy, "said Palmer. He added, however, 'This might provide such a lead compound to isolate a compound of non - toxic to select against resistance. More generally these results suggest that derivatives of antibiotics may have the potential to act as a selector against resistance."

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Biofuel Production Technology.

New Innovation In Biofuel Production Technology.
Researchers from the University of Sheffield, UK, has successfully developed the technology to save energy use in biofuel production units. With this technology, the use of energy savings of 18%. Currently biofuels production requires electrical energy large enough, which makes the production process becomes economically unattractive. And these findings would be of great importance to improve the economics of biofuel production units.

The research team is made of water-lift loop bioreactor, to generate micro bubbles (micro bubbles) with a diameter less than 50 microns. Microbubbles are able to move material faster than regular bubble, which produced conventionally. The findings of this team have been awarded Moulton Medal from Institution of Chemical Engineers, the category the best paper of the year. In addition, this innovative invention won the Best Poster Award at the 6th Annual conference bioProcessUK.

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Composition of symmetry led to a surprise.

Usually, you expect the two compounds of similar composition premises, the connectivity of atoms with atoms and also symmetrical so that is chemically identical. But the scientists who investigate the metal organic framework have found a surprising exception to this rule by identifying the two isomers with the same symmetry and bound but different gas storage properties.

A team led by Ma Shengqian at Argonne National Laboratory, Illinois, United States, investigating the molecular tetracarboxylate like a twig (ebdc) which can be attached to a metal atom from one part of any bond on four points, one at each corner of the rectangle. When heated with copper salt at a temperature of 75 ° C, a crystalline phase formed (-phase) and temperature 65 ° C a phase with properties - properties different from that formed (-phase).

So far, it seems normal. But when Ma finished crystal analysis on these two compounds, he found that they have the same composition, the same connectivity and the atom to the same symmetry. 'This type of symmetry that maintains this isomerism has not been studied previously in metal organic framework, "said Ma.

Isomer has the same symmetry but different properties = properties
The key to what has happened lies in the ligand, clearly Ma. In-phase, a ligand bound to the tip end of each unit of copper, which in-phase, they are bound together. This makes the biggest ring in-phase rather than in-phase. Thus, although the same chemical units joined together - each with the same sort of bond and the overall symmetry of the same, the property - the property is still different. In particular, the area available for hydrogen absorption was significantly higher in-isomer: 'This means that it is possible to boost gas storage capacity by finding isomers - the new isomer of unknown structure,' said Ma. Paul Forster, a materials chemist at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, United States, was fascinated by what he called a form of isomerism is 'highly unusual'. 'Structure - which is identical in structure and konektifitasnya composition, but differ on the hole geometry, provides a unique opportunity to address important questions related to the kinetic and thermodynamics of the synthesis of hybrid materials, "he said.

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catalysts Unique.

Homogeneous catalysts Unique, Divided Self After reaction.

What is a homogeneous catalyst? When we use the acid esterification catalysis for the solution of this course will mix perfectly with the reactant and product compounds. tSecara general, homogeneous catalysts are compounds that have the same phase as the reactants of chemical reactions take place.

Actually a lot of use of homogeneous catalysts in industry, ranging from the conventional, cheap sort of acid or base catalyst to organometalik compounds are expensive. Selectivity of reaction and reaction conditions are mild primary consideration homogeneous catalyst selection.

The main problem is often encountered in industrial and chemical synthesis using a homogeneous catalyst is the difficulty of doing the separation of catalyst from the product. The method used is the plural distillation or modify it kepolaran and material and energy-consuming large enough.

The dream of scientists and industrialists catalyst is a homogeneous catalyst that meets the economic requirements and easily separated after the reaction so that it can be used again. In August 2003, scientists from Brookhaven National Laboratory, R. Morris and Vladimir Dioumaev show such a homogeneous catalyst that can be settled after the reaction is complete hidrosililasi ketone compounds took place. Cation complex tungsten compounds that have weak bonds to the anion coordination is a problem-solving in these reactions.

The process is simple logic that is, before the reaction, the catalyst and the reactants dissolve completely perfect because it has the same kepolaran. However, as the process went, it was the product has a different kepolaran and the result is the separation of catalyst from the product itself. Another thing to note is the formation of two phases of the product and the catalyst material to form a kind of oil.

Indeed this technology can not generalized because of the reaction is the reaction of ketones hidrosililasi specific and does not use any solvent on the reaction. But this is really new and exciting discovery because it opens the opportunity to do further research, particularly the field of homogeneous catalysts.

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Dioxins unravel.

Using titanium and Ultraviolet, New Technology Dioxins unravel.
Discussion about dioxin reminiscent of hazardous substances contained in materials distributed by the thresher that United States troops in the jungles during the second world war. Later, this substance is blamed as the cause of the number of babies born with disabilities.

Dioxins are highly toxic substance. This substance is a cause of cancer and weakened liver function, and reduce one's immune system. Just one gram of it, dioxins can be said killing or injuring 10 thousand people.

Dioxins were also produced from the waste combustion process is not perfect, and how to handle this becomes a big problem. But now, a new technology has been developed to solve this difficult dioxins, namely by memaparinya with light and turn it into something harmless.

Newly developed tool is a tool to eliminate dioxins which uses a substance called titanium dioxide. Titanium oxide is a compound that is widely used in the manufacture of paint. When subjected to light, particularly ultraviolet light, then these compounds will react with oxygen in the air, and can solve organic materials. The new tools take advantage of these properties Titanium Oxide. The tool is mounted on the exhaust-gas pipeline facility or incinerator Incinerator. When the garbage was burned, the dioxins in the gas through the pipeline would be decomposed into carbon dioxide and water, with the titanium oxide in the device with ultra-violet rays.

By using silica gel (moisture absorbent material), scientists have succeeded in using titanium dioxide to extract the dioxins. Silica gel tersbut - a 3 mm diameter and its surface is coated by titanium oxide - used in such equipment. Silica gel surface has many holes, thus increasing surface area, and it will continue to attract dioxin with a large absorption.

Dioxins are absorbed into the silica gel is then broken down by titanium oxide is subjected to ultraviolet light. It is beneficial, transparent silica gel so that light can penetrate and cause chemical reactions in the whole place. Therefore, it can solve the dioxin with high reliability of more than 99 percent.

Newly developed equipment is very easy to be paired at the incinerator facility / Incinerator is already there. And this new technology is also environmentally friendly. In the past, describing how dioxin is by burning at extremely high temperatures - around 1000 degrees Fahrenheit - but with this new technology no longer need that much energy.

This tool only needs to expose the titanium dioxide ultraviolet light, so operating costs can almost be said very low. Tool, is now being produced in Japan. A commercial waste disposal company is scheduled to start using it before the end of this year

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the secrets of the catalyst.

Microscope reveal the secrets of the catalyst.

A promising technique to observe the catalyst work can provide new knowledge about how the catalyst, this catalyst works, the scientists reported in the Netherlands.

This research team used X-ray microscope to examine the Fischer-Tropsch reaction in the catalytic reaction in a room specially made, and they also said this technology should be able to give scientists a greater understanding of the catalytic activity, allowing the design of catalysts, catalyst better.

Solid catalysts are widely used in chemical industry, and accelerate the production of many important compounds. These catalysts are usually composed of metal nano-meter size or particles of metal oxide, which is attached to a solid support with high surface area.

However, the catalyst, catalyst and structural changes of complex chemical reactions during the - so observe directly the reaction catalyst can provide useful clues to improve efficiency. But do this at the temperatures and pressures commonly used in the industry so far proved quite difficult.

Now, a team led by Frank de Groot, and Bert Weckhuysen at the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands, in collaboration with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S., has achieved this by using a small reaction space. This study is the first study to examine the heterogeneous catalysts at work in nano-scale, the team said.

Contour maps showing the composition of the catalyst (left) and the areas where most of the hydrocarbons produced (right)

In "nanoreaktor" De Groot, a reaction occurs between the two windows are sketched with a thickness of only 10nm. This design allows the X-rays through the reaction and on the detector, resulting in snap ongoing reaction. Some X-rays are absorbed by the catalyst, reactants and products - an absolute energy is absorbed shows their chemical compositions. The team is able to investigate the surfaces of the catalyst to a resolution of about 40 nm.

"This gives us an opportunity to examine the chemical changes that occur in a catalyst while reacting, said de Groot Chemistry World, which shows that the resolution is high enough to consider each of the catalyst particle." This means that can provide much useful information to us in the nano-scale. "

One of the studied reactions of this team is Fischer-Tropsch process - in which a solid catalyst of particles of iron oxide embedded in silica is used to convert carbon monoxide and hydrogen into liquid hydrocarbons that can be used as fuel.

Tim de Groot and Weckhuysen replicate these reactions in nano-reactors and found that they were during the reaction, iron oxide having a transformation. Early iron oxide (Fe2O3) is converted to another oxide (Fe3O4), before the iron silicate (Fe2SiO4) and metallic iron begins to form. Finally, iron carbide (FexCy) began to appear. Correlate with the catalyst composition in different areas with organic products are formed, this team showed that carbon accumulates in iron-rich area, with hydrocarbon products apart from the metal to the silicon support.

"These findings show great potential for heterogeneous catalysts, catalyst for the in situ dicitra," explained Alexis Bell at the University of California, Berkeley, United States. "I imagine that this process is not limited to observation of the catalyst particles, but can also be used in a variety of other applications, such as the detection levels of particulates from the air is responsible for the formation of acid rain."

Other uses include the monitoring of the proposed structural changes in materials or research of hydrogen storage distribution of medical nanoparticles in cells. It says the development team in the field of optics and imaging methods will improve the resolution of this technique.

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Water Treatment.

New Technologies Clean Water Treatment with catalysts.
Recently, Hitachi's research team announced that they had found a new technology in water treatment. They have succeeded in developing catalyst technology to describe organic substances contained in water. The catalyst used is an active catalyst when subjected to ultraviolet light. It is said that more than 90 percent of organic matter including Dioxins can be described this way.

The advantages of this technology compared to existing technology for this is to simply use the catalyst without the use of additives. The cost of this process is much cheaper than existing technology today, for example, than by using the membrane. In addition, decomposition of organic matter with this technology requires a relatively short time.

The downside of this technology is the threshold concentration of pollutants that are still relatively small, under 100 ppm. Thus, for waste water which has a high concentration of organic substances is very high preliminary process is required to reduce the content of organic substances.

Catalysts are substances that can accelerate or stimulate the occurrence of a reaction. In this case the reaction of organic matter decomposition. For this water treatment process, the catalyst used was Titan Oxide. Titan Oxide became stronger after oxidizing ultraviolet light illuminated. Titan has an active oxide will oxidize organic substances there.

Water purifier designed by Hitachi has a simple form. Namely in the form of a cylindrical reactor with a source of ultraviolet light in the middle. Meanwhile, the catalyst attached to the cylinder wall with adhesives. Waste water is passed to the reactor cylinder and organic substances contained in them will be described by the catalyst in the cylinder wall. Currently, Indonesia is facing serious problems of clean water. It seems that we can put hope in the development of this technology.

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Transformation.

Transformation of CO2 into methanol with organokatalis.

In the journal Angewandte Chemical, researchers from IBN (Institute of Bioengineering and Nanotechnology) in Singapore reported that by using organokatalis, they can activate the process of CO2 into methanol safe very useful for industry and fuel cells. Organokatalis are catalysts that use non-metallic element found in organic compounds such as NHC (N-heterocyclic carbenes), for example IMF (1.3-bis-(2,4,6 trimethylphenyl) imidazolylidene is organokatalis form a stable and safe in storage.

These compounds do not have elements of toxic heavy metals and can be produced easily and cheaply. Scientists are reacting CO2 using NHC. When compared with inorganic catalysts, a toxic and unstable, NHC is very stable and even in open space that contact with oxygen. With these advantages NHC can react with CO2 in a dry room conditions.

Scientists at IBN also shows that only a small part of the NHC is needed to induce CO 2. One senior researcher IBN, Siti Nurhana Riduan, saying that their efforts can contribute to the reduction of CO2 in the environment and transform it into methanol, which can be useful for the industry and a source of fuel.

In this reaction, hydrosiline which is a combination of silica and hydrogen is added to the NHC teraktifasi by CO2 and the product of this reaction is methanol by hydrolysis process. Yugen Zhang (one of the researchers IBN) said that hydrosiline provide a source of hydrogen bonded to the reduction of CO2 in the process. Carbon dioxide is reduced efficiently by NHC that methanol can be easily obtained from this reaction.

Their previous research on the NHC has also concluded that the broad application of NHC can also be used as a powerful antioxidant that can prevent degenerative diseases and also mengkatalisa sugar into alternative energy sources. Currently, they have been applied to the production of methanol as the raw material from which the gas is very abundant on this earth .

Previous studies aimed at reducing the amount of CO2 into valuable products such as methanol also been carried out but in the study requires a high energy, slow reaction, and an unstable catalyst of transition metals.

IBN Executive Director Jackie Y. Ying, Ph.D., says that in the study, IBN has produced an innovative method of using raw materials that can reduce air pollution from CO2. This also can reduce the effects of global warming so that a solution for alternative energy in the middle of the energy crisis and the current environment.

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biodiesel waste recycling.

Simple way biodiesel waste recycling.

Scientists in England have managed to convert waste into biodiesel crude amine-amine useful without the need for separation techniques difficult. Glycerol is produced in significant quantities as a side-product in biodiesel production, making it as a renewable raw materials are cheap for the chemical industry.

For example, using the microbes to ferment glycerol is an interesting path to get the 1.3-propanediol, which can be used as precursors for polymers and high-value chemicals platform.

However, the fermentation products produced in dilute solutions together with the material and cell metabolic products of others, making the process of purification and separation is difficult.

Currently, a team of scientists, led by Andrew Marr at Queen's University Belfast and Gillian Stephens at the University of Manchester, had combined with the microbial processes terkatalisis transition metals to produce amines, secondary amines without the need to isolate and purify the diol intermediate compounds.

Marr and Stephens treat bacterial glycerol by Clostridium butyricum, then do centrifugation of a mixture of bacteria, 1,3-propanediol, and by-products to remove cells. This team then added a solution of iridium catalysts, bases and anilin in toluene into the solution, producing a mixture bifase. After 24 hours at a temperature of 115oC, 20 percent 1,3-propanediol has been converted into secondary amines.

"Since fossil fuels are quite rare, the chemists have started to develop new methods to convert renewable raw materials into chemical products and materials that people want," said Marr. "The progress that we have the key is to integrate the processes biokatalitik and kemokatalitik to avoid separation of fermentation products."

"This is an important example of adding value to the resource-renewable resources," said Mark Harmer, a doctoral student at DuPont, Delaware, U.S.. "The ability to use all the components of renewable raw materials will become the key to developing a biorefinery to replace oil-based refinery that is now."

Waste glycerol by Clostridium butyricum treated ago with iridium catalyst, a base and anilin to produce secondary amine-amine.

Stephens agrees: "This new approach will allow obtaining many chemical products from one single fermentation mixture. As far as we know, this is the first time where one-pot approach has been applied by using the product-porduk of microbial cells intact. This approach must be comprehensive, because of their chemical properties can be changed by replacing the non-liquid phase with a mixture of reactants and catalyst alternatives. Microbiological properties may also change, allowing the conversion of raw materials into a variety of fermentation products. "

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Oil usefulness.

Uses fractions obtained from petroleum-related fisisnya properties like boiling point and viscosity, and chemical properties.

Gasoline.
Gasoline is a transportation fuel that still plays an important role until now. Gasoline contains more than 500 types of hydrocarbons that have a chain C5-C10. Levels vary depending on the composition of crude oil and the desired quality. So, how is the use of petrol as fuel?

Gasoline as a fuel in motor vehicles.
Because gas burns only in the vapor phase, then the fuel must be evaporated in the carburetor before the cylinder is burned in vehicle engines. The energy generated from the combustion process of gasoline changed into motion through the following stages.

Combustion of gasoline is the desired result in a smooth drive to the decline of the piston. This depends on the accuracy of the combustion time for the amount of energy transferred to the piston to the maximum. Timeliness depends on the type of burning hydrocarbon chain which in turn will determine the quality of gasoline. Straight-chain alkanes in gasoline such as n-heptana, n-octane, and n-nonana highly flammable. This causes the combustion occurs too early before the piston reaches the right position. That places the sound of explosions known as knock (knocking). Arson too early also means there are remaining component of gasoline that has not burned so that the energy transferred to the piston is not the maximum. Branched-chain alkanes / alisiklik / aromatics in gasoline as isooktana not too easy to burn. Thus, fewer beats produced, and the energy is transferred to a larger piston.

Therefore, gasoline with a good quality should contain more branched chain alkanes / alisiklik / aromatic than straight chain alkanes. The quality is expressed by gasoline octane numbers.

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Biodiesel industry.

Biodiesel is a simple chemical compound that contains six or seven kinds of fatty acid esters. Biodiesel is defined as the methyl esters with carbon chain lengths between 12 and 20 of the fatty acids derived from vegetable oils for example lipid or animal fat. Vegetable oils or animal fats can be made biodiesel by transesterification reaction using alkohol.Komposisi and chemical properties of biodiesel depend on the purity, the short length, degree of saturation, and the structure of the alkyl chain fatty acid constituent.

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel from renewable sources (renewable), with the composition of fatty acid esters from vegetable oils include: palm oil, coconut oil, castor oil fence, cotton seed oil, and still there are more than 30 kinds of plants that are potential to Indonesia made biodiesel.

The process of making Biodiesel.
Biodiesel is made through a chemical process called transesterification. This process produces two products of methyl esters (biodiesel) / mono-alkyl esters and glycerine which is a side product. The main raw material for biodiesel production include vegetable oils, animal fats, fat old / fat recycling. Meanwhile, as the supporting material that is alcohol. In making the catalyst needed for biodiesel esterification process. Biodiesel products depending on the vegetable oils used as raw materials and preliminary processing of these raw materials.

Alcohol is used as a reactant for the vegetable oil is methanol, but can also be used ethanol, isopropanol or butyl, but it should be noted also in the alcohol content of the water. When the high water content will affect the results of low quality biodiesel, because the content of soap, ALB and high trigiserida. Besides the results of biodiesel is also influenced by the high operating temperature of the production process, the length of mixing time or mixing speed of alcohol.

Catalyst is also required to enhance solubility during the reaction, commonly used catalyst is a strong base is NaOH or KOH or sodium metoksida. The catalyst will be chosen depending on used vegetable oil, crude oil when used with ALB content of less than 2%, well formed and also glycerin soap.

Catalysts are generally very hygroscopic and reacts to form a chemical solution that will be destroyed by the reactant alcohol. If more water is absorbed by the catalyst is a catalyst work less well so poorly biodiesel product. After the reaction is complete, the catalyst must neutralize by adding a strong mineral acid. After being washed biodiesel neutralization process can also be done with the addition of washing water, HCl can also be used for the neutralization process 318 base catalyst, when used acid to produce phosphate fertilizers phosphat (K3PO4).

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Fuel Factory.

Fuel is defined as material which when burned can continue the combustion process itself, along with heat expenditure. The fuel can form solids, liquids, or gases that can react with oxygen (air) in eksoterm. Eksoterm heat of reaction can be directly used for heating or often also changed first into other energy forms (typically into steam).

Significant quantities of hot fuel is low "(lower Calorific Value), which states the amount of heat that usually obtained in the combustion under normal circumstances. This quantity is expressed dalarn units kcal / kg, kJ / kg, kcal / ml or kJ / mi. The more refined measure of fuel, the faster the material is burned and the easier it is measuring and setting. In addition, the excess air required for combustion is smaller.

This means the temperature is higher. For example, use of heat from the combustion process directly is: to cook in the kitchens of households, heating installations, are examples of the use of indirect heat is: nergi heat converted into mechanical, such as the motor fuel; heat converted into electrical energy, eg the diesel power plants; power gas and steam power.
Combustion

Combustion is a rapid chemical reaction between oxygen and combustible materials, accompanied by the emergence of light and generate heat. Spontaneous combustion is the burning of where the material that oxidized perlahanlahan generated heat is not released, but used to raise the temperature of the material gradually until it reaches the temperature of the flame.

Perfect combustion is the burning of which all constituents can be burned in the fuel to form CO2, water (= H2O), and SO2 gas, so that no more material left to burn.

Kinds of Fuel
1. Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
2. Nuclear fuel, such as uranium and plutonium. In the nuclear fuel, heat obtained from the chain reaction.
3. Other fuels, such as: the rest of the plants, vegetable oil, animal oil.

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Bomb explosion mechanism.

Some time ago in various mass media, both electronic and print, often appearing bombing cases in Indonesia. Perhaps we still remember the name of Imam Samudra or Amrozi. Whose names figure soared to post-detonation bomb Bali I and II of this could be a frightening specter. Bombing cases are often linked to both these figures.

However, we know how to process this happened bomb?
Why can arise explosion?

This paper does not intend to teach readers how to make bombs. However, intended to explain in general how a simple mechanism for the bomb blast could happen in terms of chemistry.

In chemical terms, this detonation reaction known as the explosive reaction. The explosive reaction is a chemical reaction that took place very rapidly and takes place in a very short time. This explosive reaction releases a tremendous energy. In a large scale, the reaction is capable of destroying objects that are within a radius of the yield. This reaction in daily life known as a bomb blast.

The reaction is usually run explosion by the catalyst. This catalyst causes a chemical reaction take place quickly. The catalyst is a substance that can increase the speed of reaction without modifying the standard Gibbs energy change of a reaction (Admin Alif, 2005).

Platinum is one example of the catalyst used to accelerate the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen in the gas phase. This reaction can cause an explosion.

From some of the literature, it is known that the catalyst can produce hydrogen atoms from hydrogen molecules and atoms will cause a chain reaction that is very fast.

Besides the catalyst, the reaction explosions can also occur if there is a flame, like flame from a match, and so on. This flame can lead to the formation of free radicals. In a reaction mechanism, these free radicals can cause reactions that produce more branches than one radical. If this radical reaction occurs in significant amounts, the amount of free radicals in a reaction will increase. Finally, the reaction will take place very quickly and will release a huge energy. Furthermore there was an explosion.

Albert Einstein once introduced to the world about the relationship between mass and energy with the velocity of an object known as the equation E = M.C2. If we connect with the reaction of explosions above, obtained a conclusion that a detonation reaction will be even greater if the mass of the reactants (substances which have a reaction) is used in large numbers by the very high speeds. Einstein defines the speed here is the speed of light dikuadratkan. From the use of such a terrible explosion.

In laboratory-scale detonation reaction this could be tested-cobakan. From various literature, in the laboratory there are many chemicals that when mixed can cause an explosion. Although the explosion that happened quite small, but in principle almost any other explosive reaction in a large scale. We live just increase concentration. Next to an explosion, then the catalyst or ditambahkanlah flame to accelerate the reaction or the formation of free radicals. The result will release a large amount of energy.

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How Crude Oil Formed?

Human beings live in this world can hardly be separated from petroleum. Not only for the fuel we use oil. Did anyone realize that our clothing is using components derived from petroleum? Even up to the fertilizer was using oil, so the plants can flourish and produce various kinds of plants.

Electric home lighting was also using a generator, fuel from petroleum. Paints, plastics, DVDs, artificial heart valves, and other things that use materials from petroleum. How oil if it was gone, or gone back up?

Then how do these petroleum formed?
Petroleum is formed from organisms, plants, and animals, are so small that lived in ancient seas. Once these organisms die, and then buried in the seabed and then buried by sand and mud. Then he will form a rich layer of organic matter that would eventually become sedimentary rock. This process is repeated continuously, so that a layer will close the next layer. And this went on for millions of years. Over millions of years that the ocean is also possible to shrink and move because of the movement of earth plates.

Sediment formed oxygen is generally poor. So it is not possible organic material from organisms, plants, and animals are decomposed by sempurnya. But there are anaerobic bacteria (not using oxygen in her life) that break down this material, bit by bit, molecule by molecule, over millions of years into a rich material of hydrogen and carbon. Terdekomposisinya line with this material, there was also pressure caused by the rocks that settle on it, so that the temperature and pressure are high and then gradually will change the remnants of organic material into oil and gas.

The resulting oil is then will move into the top layer of rock due to low density. This oil will go to the rock pores have a size sufficient. So that the oil will accumulate in the rock layers. Layer of rock that can contain this oil is called the oil reservoir.

Rocks which contain petroleum oldest known age of more than 600 million years. Meanwhile, the youngest was about 1-million years. We can imagine how long the oil formation. Formation of a long time is what causes including petroleum resources can not be updated. So that we should conserve the use of this oil for human survival.

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The process of changing CO2

The process of changing CO2 in the air into organic raw materials oxalic useful.
In the presence of CO2 in the air, the catalyst (left) reacts to form a complex that contains two oxalate (mostly red), which can be liberated with acid treatment. Cu green, N blue, S yellow, O red, and C black.

In a study with implications for global warming show, the researchers have created a new way to eliminate the greenhouse gas CO2 from the air and form a probable organic materials useful in the process (Science 2010, 327, 313). This technique is still at the demonstration stage but promises to other CO2 foreclosure strategy.

Tool-making process prior to "fix" CO2 include the stoichiometric reaction of the hydroxide and carbonate or bicarbonate catalyst to form the transformation of organic compounds like formaldehyde and methanol. Catalytic conversion more efficient and practical for use in large scale, but the catalyst end - the end can not be used in CO2 in the air because they also reduce oxygen, which is in the air at a very high tingkata of the CO2. In addition, they are not tselektif, creating a mixture of organic products.

Expert Elisabeth Bouwman inorganic chemistry from the University of Leiden, the Netherlands, and his colleagues have now been mengmbangkan a catalyst that reacts with CO2 from ambient air to form a single product oxalate, a useful raw material for the production of other organic compounds. After the reaction, the catalyst was electrochemically diregenerasikan potential reduction in very low, this means that it is highly unusual in energitikal.

The process does not improve the global warming problem properly and probably never will. "Our study purely a fundamental, and the findings will require additional work before they may be applied to the industrial sector," Bouwman said.

However, "it was remarkable that the catalyst was very special to reduce CO2 to oxygen and that the electrochemical step requires very little energy states that" the catalyst structure is almost perfectly adapted to the reaction to work, "commented Clifford P. Kubiak from the University of California, San Diego, a specialist in the conversion of CO2. Compared to the way - another way to remove CO2 from the air, changing greenhouse gases into the catalytic oxalate, efficient and selective "a little longer until the desired top level," he said.

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the Greenhouse Effect.

the positive impact of the Greenhouse Effect.
Global warming is an event that caused the increased greenhouse effect (green house effect). Actually, the greenhouse effect is not a bad thing, just with the greenhouse effect the earth we can keep warm, and even allows us to survive until now.

You can liken the earth like a car that was parked in a sunny weather. You would have thought that the temperature inside the car will be hotter than the temperature outside the car. Sunlight enters the car through the cracks in the glass windows and automatically heat from the sun to be absorbed by the upholstery, carpets, dashboard and other items that were in the car.

When the object is released back to the heat absorbed, not all of heat will be able to exit through the windows, some of it will be reflected back-radiated heat will be back by the objects in the car with a wavelength different. So the number of heat energy would stay in the car, and only a fraction of the energy that can escape. In the end, the car would have periodically increased temperature, the longer will be getting hot.

When the sunlight on the earth's atmosphere and surface, approximately 70% of the energy remained in the earth, is absorbed by land, sea, plants and other objects. 30% the rest is reflected back through the clouds, rain and other reflective surfaces. But 70% of heat is not always there in bumu, because if so then one day our world will be a "ball of fire"). Objects around the planet that absorbs sunlight back often radiates the absorbed heat. Some of these heat into space, stay there and be reflected back to the bottom surface of the earth when the substances in the atmosphere, like carbon dioxide, methane and water vapor. Heat is what makes the earth's surface to stay warm than in outer space, because more energy is absorbed than reflected back. That event is called the greenhouse effect (green house effect).

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Impact of nitrogen oxide.

Impact of nitrogen oxide pollution on health.
Nitrogen dioxide is an air pollutant produced in the combustion process. When nitrogen dioxide is present, nitrogen oxides are also found; combination of NO and NO2 are collectively referred to nitrogen oxides (NOx).

At very high concentrations, which may be experienced only on fatal industrial accidents, exposure to NO2 can cause lung damage is heavy and fast. The influence of health may also occur at ambient concentrations are much lower as in the observation during the pollution incident in the city. Evidence obtained suggests that the distribution of ambient may result from chronic and acute effects, especially in the sub-population groups of people affected by asthma.

NO2 mainly behave as oxidizing agents that may damage the cell membranes and proteins. At high concentrations, the channel will air causes an acute inflammation. Moreover, the spread in short-time effect on increased risk of respiratory tract infections. Although many of controlling the spread is done, the facts clearly defines the relationship between the concentration or dose and their feedback is not enough.

To spread the acute, only very high concentrations (> 1880 mg/m3, 1 ppm) affect the health of people; when, people with asthma or lung disease are more vulnerable to acute lower concentrations.

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nitrogen oxide pollution.

Impact of nitrogen oxide pollution (NOx)
Nitrogen oxide is often referred to as oxides of nitrogen NOx has 2 different forms of nature, namely gas NO2 and NOx gases. NO2 gas properties is colored and smelly, but for NO gas is colorless and odorless. NO2 gas colors are maroon and stinging pungent nose.

NOx levels in the air daearh densely populated urban areas will be higher than rural areas with a population slightly. This is caused by a variety of activities that support human life will increase the levels of NOx in the air, such as transportation, electric generators, waste disposal and others.

NOx air pollution teruatam gas from combustion exhaust gases which result from stationary generators or machines which use natural gas fuel. The presence of NOx in the air can be affected by sunlight that followed fotolitik NO2 reaction cycle as follows:

NO2 + sunlight → NO + O

O + O2 → O3 (ozone)

O3 + NO → NO2 + O2

There are two ways to avoid incomplete combustion, the combustion process is 2, namely:
1. Fuel burned at high temperatures with a number of air stoichiometry in accordance with the equation, for example, by 90 -95% air. NO combustion is limited not by the excess air.
2. Complete fuel burn at relatively low temperature with excess air. Low temperature to avoid the formation of NO.

Both these processes reduce the formation of NO up to 90%. NO2 in humans can be toxic to the lungs, levels of 100 ppm can cause death, 5 ppm after 5 minutes cause shortness of breath.

Sources and Pattern of Exposure
The main source of NOx in the atmosphere is from the street traffic. It is responsible for about half of total emissions in Europe. Another major source is from power plants, heating plants and industrial processes.

Many of NOx emitted as NO, which oxidized to NO2 by ozone or other oxidants.
Although motor kendraan recorded for approximately 50% of NOx emissions, a higher proportion of town. In London, 74% NOx emissions resulting from road traffic.

Strategies for NO2 monitoring data taken from space and the distribution pattern of the population most dominated by road traffic.

Characteristics of pollutants monitoring program designed to NO2 is:
* Concentrations greater determined by road traffic emissions
* This is a homogeneous space, secondary pollutants
* The ratio of peak to mean concentration are statistically strong and useful.

Impact of nitrogen oxide pollution (NOx)
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) have two kinds, namely nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Both these gases have different properties and both are very dangerous for health. NO gases that pollute the air is visually difficult to observe because the gas is colorless and odorless. While NO2 gases pollute the air when easily observed from the smell very pungent and reddish-brown color. Air containing NO gas in the normal range is relatively safe and harmless, except if the gas is in NO concentration. NO gas concentrations are high may cause harmful interference to the nervous system resulting in seizures. If this continues poisoning can cause paralysis of will. NO gas will become more dangerous if the gas is oxidized by oxygen gas so as to NO2.

The air is polluted by nitrogen oxides is not only harmful to humans and animals, but also dangerous for the life of plants. The influence of NOx gases in the plant include the emergence of spots on the leaf surface. At higher concentrations of these gases can cause necrosis, or damage to the leaf tissue. In these circumstances leaves may not work perfectly as the formation of carbohydrates temapat through the process of photosynthesis. As a result the plant can not produce as expected. Concentration of 10 ppm NO was able to reduce the photosynthetic ability of leaves to about 60% to 70%.

Air pollution by NOx gases may cause Peroxy nitrates Acetil abbreviated to PAN. This Peroxi Acetil nitrates cause irritation to the eyes that causes the eyes sting and water. PAN mixtures with other chemical compounds in the air can cause a chemical fog photos or photos Chemistry Smog very disrupting the environment.

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pollution.

Forever Not harmful pollution.
We've all heard that the levels of carbon dioxide and the gas-greenhouse gases in the atmosphere continues - canal increased. These gases binding energy of the sun and led to increased global temperature. But a new study shows that some kinds of air pollutants change the chemical composition of clouds, so these clouds reflect more sunlight into space than to the earth. This phenomenon may reduce the effects of global warming caused by greenhouse gases.

Robert Charlson, an atmospheric kimiwan from the University of Washington, said that the aerosol (which the particles are so small they constantly stay in the atmosphere) of industrial pollution affects the composition of clouds. In collaboration with scientists from Consilio Nazionale delle Ricerche, he analyzes a cloud over the Po River Valley, an industrial area in Northern Italy. The researchers took samples of water from a lot of clouds and water vapor, in an attempt to reverse the process of cloud formation.

When the Charlson and his colleagues have analyzed the clouds evaporated, they found that the surface tension of water titik2 reduced by 30% compared to the value of water pressure in general. Surface pressure is the force which attract water molecules to the center, away from the surface. In water, hydrogen atoms are negatively charged and positively charged oxygen atom. This led to a strong attractive force between hydrogen and oxygen, which causes the water molecules attached to each other more than with other molecules.

At other molecules, such as air pollutants, mixed with water, they interfere with some of these hydrogen bonds and lead to reduction in surface pressure. In the process of cloud formation, surface pressure is relatively smaller this caused more water points are established, but in a smaller size. The scientists calculated that 30% reduction in surface pressure can produce 20% more water points and reduce the size of the water point as much as 6%

Charlson compare this situation with a mix of water and sugar with water and detergent mix. When sugar is added to a bottle of water, there will be no bubbles are formed, even if we add the sugar in a large number and shake it. But just by adding a few drops of detergent can make a bottle filled with foam. Try it at home and you will be able to see how the lights reflect on each foam. Some air pollutants have properties such as sugar, while others act like detergents.

According to Charlson and colleagues, increasing the number of water droplets in clouds, the sun can cause 1% more reflected away from Earth. It is important to remember that the aerosols, but can reduce the effects of greenhouse gases, can also alter the basic chemical composition of the atmosphere. NASA mission scheduled for 2003 will be studied in detail and the atmosphere is expected to provide clues on how aerosols affect climate change.

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Hydrogen Fuel Ozone Damaging?.

Hydrogen fuel cells, which touted widely as a source of pollution-free energy, not as clean as could be expected. So scientists from the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. According to the researchers, the process of providing hydrogen to the cell fuel cells could make the earth cooler, more cloudy, and creating ozone hole larger in the earth's poles. Why? Because in the process of production and transportation, about 10 to 20 percent off the gas it will meet the atmosphere, it is written in a research report in journal Science.

Increasing concentrations of hydrogen gas into the air, rather two-hydrogen molecules from normal levels of 0.5 ppm (parts per million) will create more water (H2O) for hydrogen (H2) will react with Oxygen (O2). As a result the heavens the earth will be filled with more clouds.

Ozone hole bigger
Hydrogen fuel cells are considered as multi-use energy forms, ie, can be used for anything, ranging from household needs to be a vehicle fuel. Hydrogen and is believed to be environmentally friendly because it does not produce exhaust gases. This material has the potential to replace fossil fuels (oil and gas) which was accused of being ringleaders of air pollution and greenhouse effect due to exhaust gases covering the Earth's atmosphere.

However, computer simulations are conducted to test this theory shows that the use of hydrogen resulted stratosferis temperature dropped to 0.5 degrees Celsius, so the arrival of spring in North and South poles will be too late. In addition there is the ozone hole over the two regions will become increasingly wide, deep and lasting.

The loss of the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere create direct sunlight through the earth and will increase risk of skin cancer. As for the loss of the ozone layer, many people blame the use of chlorofluorocarbon chemicals used in refrigerators. This material has now been banned.

The gaps in the ozone layer is expected to be closed again within 20 to 50 years along with the loss of atmospheric chlorofluorocarbon. But the entry of hydrogen into the atmosphere is said to exacerbate this condition. Not healthy, hydrogen may actually aggravate the illness of this earth.

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Nitrogen oxides.

Nitrous monoxide, N2O. Monovalent oxides of nitrogen. Pyrolysis of ammonium nitrate will produce this oxide by the reaction:

NH4NO3 → N2O + 2 H2O (heating at 250 ° C).

Although oxidation is only a formality, it is interesting and symbolic of how the nitrogen oxidation to form NH4NO3 changes in monovalent nitrogen oxides (+1 is the average of -3 and +5 oxidation state N in NH4 + and NO3-). Nno bond distance in N2O is 112 pm (NN) and 118 pm (NO), respectively related to the bond order of 2.5 and 1.5. N2O (16e) isoelectronic with CO2 (16 e). These compounds are widely used for analgesic.

Nitrogen oxide, NO. Divalent oxides of nitrogen. Obtained by reduction of nitrite via the following reaction:

KNO2 + KI + H2SO4 → NO + K2SO4 + H2O + ½ I2

Because an odd number of valence electrons (11 e), NO is paramagnetic. NO distance is 115 pm and has a double bond character. Electrons do not pair in the π * orbital antiikatan easily removed, and NO to NO + (nitrosonium) is isoelectronic with CO.

Because the electron removed from the orbital antiikatan, NO bond becomes stronger. NOBF4 and NOHSO4 compounds containing these cations and is used as oxidizing 1 electron.

Although monomeric NO as a gas is paramagnetic, dimerisasi the solid phase will produce diamagnetisme. NO is a transition metal ligand complex and unique form complexes such as [Fe (CO2) (NO) 2], with NO is a neutral ligand with 3 electrons. Although MnO straight bonds in this type of complex, MnO bond angle turn to 120 ° - 140 ° in [Co (NH3) 5 (NO)] Br2, with NO-4 is the ligand electrons. Recently become clear that NO has a variety of biological control functions, such as blood pressure reduction actions, and is the most important species, after Ca2 + ions, in signal transduction.

Nitrous trioxide, N2O3. Oxidation of nitrogen in this compound is +3, this compound is unstable and will be decomposed into NO and NO2 at room temperature. This compound is produced when the quantity of NO and NO2 equivalent dikondensasikan at low temperatures. Padatannya light blue and dark blue will bewarna when in the liquid, but the color will fade at higher temperatures.

Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, nitrogen compounds with the +4 oxidation berbilangan nitrogen. NO2 is a compound with an odd number of electrons with unpaired electrons, and reddish-brown. These compounds are in equilibrium with the dimer Nitrous tetraoksida, N2O4, which is not bewarna. The proportion of NO2 is 0.01% at -11 ° C and increased gradually to 15.9% at the boiling point (21.2 ° C), to 100% at 140 ° C.

N2O4 can be produced by pyrolysis of lead nitrate

2 Pb (NO3) 2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2 at 400 oC

When NO2 dissolved in water and nitric acid produced nitrite:

2 NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2

With one-electron oxidation, NO2 + (nitroil) is formed and the bond angles change from 134o in neutral NO2 to 180o. On the other hand, with one-electron reduction, NO2-formed ions (nitrito) with a bond angle 115o.

Nitrous pentoksida, N2O5, obtained when the concentrated nitric acid is slowly dehydrated with phosphorus pentoksida at low temperatures. This compound sublimes at a temperature of 32.4o C. Karenadengan dissolving it in water to produce nitric acid, also known as Nitrous pentoksida anhydrous nitric acid.

N2O5 + H2O → 2 HNO3

Although in the solid state is pentoksida Nitrous NO2NO3 ion pairs with alternate sites are occupied by ions ions straight NO2 + and NO3-planar ions, on the circumstances of this molecular gas is molecular.

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Nitrogen.

History
(Latin: nitrum, Greece: nitron, natural soda, forming) Nitrogen was discovered by chemist and physicist Daniel Rutherford in 1772. He separates the oxygen and carbon dioxide from the air and shows the remaining gas does not support combustion or living organisms. At the same time there are some scientists who conduct research lainny of nitrogen. They are Scheele, Cavendish, Priestley, and others. They called this gas air without oxygen.

Source
Nitrogen gas (N2) contained as many as 78.1% in the air. In comparison, the atmosphere of Mars contains only 2.6% nitrogen. From the earth's atmosphere, nitrogen gas can be produced through the process of liquidation (Liquefaction) and fractional distillation. Nitrogen is found in living things as part of biological compounds.

Element
French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier named nitrogen azote, meaning without life. However, nitrogen compounds found in food, fertilizers, poisons and explosives. As nitrogen gas bewarna no, no smell and is considered an inert element (elements that do not react). As a liquid, it is also not bewarna and scented and have the same ketampakan with water. Nitrogen gas can be prepared by heating a solution of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) in water.

Nitrogen compounds
Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and potassium nitrate (KNO3) is formed by the decomposition of organic material with metal compounds such. In the dry conditions in beberapat place, saltpeters (salt) is found in sufficient quantities and used as fertilizer. Inorganic compounds other nitrogen is nitric acid (HNO3), ammonia (NH3) and oxides (NO, NO2, N2O4, N2O), cyanide (CN-), etc.. Nitrogen cycle is one of the important processes in nature for living organisms. Although nitrogen gas did not react, bacteria in the soil can improve the nitrogen into a useful form (as fertilizer) for plants. In other words, nature has provided a method to produce nitrogen for plant growth. Animals then eat these plants where nitrogen had been contained in their system as a protein. Cycle is complete when the bacteria, other bacteria convert the waste nitrogen compounds into nitrogen gas. As the main component of proteins, nitrogen is an essential ingredient for life.

Ammonia
Ammonia (NH3) is a commercial compound of nitrogen is most important. He produced using the Haber process. Natural gas (methane, CH4) reacts with steam to produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas (H2) in a two-step process. Hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas and then reacted in the Haber process to produce ammonia. Gas is not bewarna stinging smell can be easily liquidated. Even the liquid form of this compound is used as nitrogen fertilizer. Ammonia is also used to produce urea (NH2CONH2), which is also used as fertilizer in the plastics industry, and in the farming industry as a livestock food supplement. Ammonia is often the first compound to a lot of nitrogen compounds.

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Greenhouse gases.

On earth, we get the energy from the sun. We will feel the heat when the sun is shining because the earth absorbs some energy from the sun. However, not all the energy is absorbed. Some energy is reflected back into space in the form of heat. Naturally reflected rays from the earth will be released into the air so that the heat in the earth tend to be stable. However, this situation would be disrupted if the Earth's atmosphere is a collection of gas that can block the reflected light into the sky.

As a result the light should stay away from the earth will remain concentrated in the surrounding earth, which grew more and more and make the earth hotter. This phenomenon known as global warming (global warming). Collection of gas that blocks light reflected from the earth called greenhouse gases (green house gases). The effects of greenhouse gases called greenhouse effect (green house effect).

Since the industrial revolution, human activity causes an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations to a level that is not expected. The greatest abundance is carbon dioxide (CO2) which reaches 64% of all greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. While the rest (36%) is a combination of several gases. Before the industrial revolution, atmospheric CO2 levels are still relatively low, ie 280 ppm in 1860. With more and more burning of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, CO2 levels rose to 379 ppm in 2005 (Forster et al, 2007).

Based on the 1996 IPCC guidelines, as revised, is categorized as a greenhouse gas is CO2, methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, a group of gas), perfluorokarbon (PFC, a group of gas), and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6). These gases is also a reference to the Kyoto Protocol (1997). Other greenhouse gases contained in the IPCC 2006 guidelines are nitrogen trifluoride (b3), trifluorometil sulfur pentafluorida (SF5CF3), halogenated ethers, and other halokarbon. Gases containing fluoride such as HFCs, PFCs, SF6, SF5CF3, and g3 can be categorized as terfluorinasi gases (fluorinated gases). These gases are produced primarily as a substitute substances or ozone destroyer Ozone depleting Substances (ODS), particularly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or freon is widely used as a refrigerant and aerosol propellant.

It turned out that the attempt to replace substances damaging the ozone causing new problems, namely global warming. In fact, these substances have the potential of global warming (global warming potential, GWP) greater than CO2. For example, SF5CF3 has 18,000 times GWP GWP of CO2. Nf3, many compounds produced from semiconductor manufacturing process and making this LCD has a GWP of CO2 GWP 16,800 times. But overall, the potential of these compounds have not matched the potential caused by CO2, because CO2 emissions are very large. However, early control of emissions of these compounds should be done so as not to cause greater problems.

Besides the gas-greenhouse gases that have been agreed in the Kyoto Protocol, the scientists also mention some substances to watch out because it contributes to global warming. These substances are ozone, water vapor, and aerosols. These substances can also be categorized as greenhouse gases.

Ozone is a greenhouse gas that is continuously produced and destroyed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions. In the troposphere, human activities have increased ozone levels through the release of gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides, which can chemically react to produce ozone.

Water vapor is a greenhouse gas with the highest levels in the atmosphere. However, human activity does not greatly affect the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere. Aerosols are tiny particles that are in the atmosphere with the size, concentration and chemical composition vary. Aerosols in the atmosphere comes from aerosol emissions directly or formed from other compounds in the atmosphere. Burning of fossil fuels and biomass, and industrial processes release aerosols containing sulfur compounds, organic compounds, and soot. Aerosols in the atmosphere can also arise from nature, such as from volcanic eruptions.

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